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During the fourth century B.C., the political powers in Greece were continually in upheaval as the city-states battled for supremacy. Generally however, many city-states either flourished or regressed in response to their leaders' skill as orators, warriors, and figureheads. The city-states of Sparta (under the government of Kings Lysander and Agesilaus), Athens (under the authority of political orators Demosthenes and Isocrates), Thebes (led by their great generals Pelopidas and Epaminondas) and Macedonia (Ruled by Philip and Alexander), are all examples of how superior leadership during the fourth century was crucial in the battle for a city-states power over Greece.
After Sparta defeated the Aegean cities in the battle at Aegospotami, King Lysander established decarchies (boards of ten Spartiates), supported by Spartan garrisons and harmosts (military governors) to maintain Sparta's stronghold over the Aegean and also to ensure tribute was paid. Whilst at the time this was seen as a politically astute tactic, King Lysander soured Sparta's dominance by encouraging cruel and unrelenting behaviour by the garrisons and harmosts. Sparta's hegemony in Greece was only accepted uncontested for nine years until a coalition rose against Sparta's harsh dominance.
The coalition consisted of Athens, Corinth, Thebes, Argos and other smaller city-states opposed to Sparta's authority. The coalition first battled Sparta at what is called the Corinthian War (4 B.C.), but was defeated at Nemea. The Persians also disliked the uneven distribution if power in Greece and sent gold to support an exiled Athenian, Conon, to battle, and eventually beat the Spartans at Cnidus. This therefore gained Persia, (ruled by Artaxerxes II), the control of the Aegean and subsequently the Spartan garrisons and decarchies were ejected from the Aegean city-states.
Persia then funded the Athenians to rebuild their long walls and refortify their Piraeus. Consequentially the Persians saw that the Athenians had gained too much power and formed allegiance with Sparta to defeat Athens in Hellespont. During this battle Sparta relied heavily on the help of its allies, yet once the campaign had drawn to a conclusion Sparta (and Lysander) claimed the victory as their own. This angered their allies who realised that their many soldiers had died in vain.Order Custom Fourth Century Greece paper
By 87 B.C. the Great King of Persia, Artaxerxes II, was beginning to tire of all the Greek conflicts so he called for representatives from all the city-states assemble in Persia. The Great King laid down an ultimatum for the settlement of the Greeks' conflicts, which stated that all city-states were to remain autonomous except Lemnos, Imbros and Sycros, which would belong to Athens and The Peloponnesian League, which would remain under Spartan control. All states signed the King's Peace in fear of Persia's wealth and influence.
For almost a decade, Greece remained more or less at peace. However, In 8 King Agesilaus set out and seized the Thebans citadel and then went on to destroy the powerful Chalcidian League in 7. But in 78, Thebes revolted and expelled its Spartan garrison. The garrisons that Agesilaus reinstated in Boeotia were expelled one by one and eventually no more were replaced.
Sparta had become far too selfish. As a response to the ever-growing hatred of Sparta, Athens established a second Athenian League (77 B.C.) in order to defeat Sparta. In 76 Athens and her allies defeated the Spartans and regained the principal power over Greece.
In 71 a revision of the King's Peace was established called the Peace of Callias, in which the representatives of Greece assembled in Sparta. The main focus of the Peace of Callias was to ensure to autonomy of all the Greek city-states with the exceptions of the Peloponnesian League and the Athenian League. When Thebes sought the recognition of their Boeotian League King Agesilaus refused them and the Thebans withdrew from the pact.
This led to the Spartan King Cleombrotus' invasion of Boeotia later in 71, which was followed by the Battle of Leuctra in which Thebes' new General, Epaminondas, was first able to display his tactical brilliance. After Thebes gained unexpected victory it was able to assert its authority over Greece much to the jealousy and suspicion of Athens and Pherae. In 70 Thebes then began its new campaign of dominance by expanding its empire into Thessaly, Macedon and interfering in the Peloponnese while Spartas' demise was already asserted.
In 6 B.C. Thebes responded to a plea for help from the Arcadians whom they had aided in their uprise against the Spartans and formation of the Arcadian Union. Athens ignored the cry for help, but the great Generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas responded by leading an army of Boeotians into Sparta. Epaminondas and Pelopidas then went on to free Sparta's enslaved helots and evade an combined Athenian and Corinthian Force on their journey home.
King Agesilaus' failure to transform the Spartan army into a more efficient battalion and his underestimation of Thebes caused the ruin of Sparta. Had Agesilaus recognised the need for change in battle tactics and formation, Sparta would have proved to be a more of a challenge to Thebes, but he was stubborn and unwilling to adhere to radically needed change. It was largely due to Lysander's fierce and brutal harmosts and garrisons that began the downfall of Sparta but it was Agesilaus' obduracy that sealed Sparta's fate.
In 67 Pelopidas met the Great King of Susa who had been called upon to aid the settlement of Greece turmoil. Pelopidas impressed the Great King who then showed Thebes much favour. The Great King ordered that Sparta give up Messenia and Athens was to beach her fleet. This only caused an uprising in anti-Theban sentiment so an alliance between Sparta and Athens was made in response. Thebes was not troubled by the combined forces of Athens and Sparta and went on to capture more territory in Thessaly.
Tragically in 64, Pelopidas led his army to victory in Pherae only to be slain. After his death, in the absence on Epaminondas a plot to overthrow the Theban democratic government was uncovered and without the opinion or assistance of their great leader, the Boeotian Assembly punished the entire village of Orchomenos by burning it to the ground an enslaving all of its occupants. This caused further political angst in Greece and even led to the disbandment of the Arcadian league, due to conflicting allegiances. The Arcadian cites of Megalopolis and Tegea remain sided with the Thebans while many other cities crossed over into the Spartan/Athenian alliance. In 6, to counter the danger of a Spartan and Arcadian alliance, Epaminondas led an army into the Peloponnese. During an attack upon Mantinea, Epaminondas was mortally wounded by a spear thrust and died after he ensured to Boeotians were winning.
Both Epaminondas and Pelopidas had been remarkable men. Together they had unified the forces in Boeotia and reorganised them into a revered army. They had planned their battles decisively and executed their plans determinedly and with conviction. After their deaths with the help of Persian gold, the power of Athens rose and the Thebans could not maintain their stronghold.
Athens began its climb to dominance by first re-establishing its naval stronghold over the Aegean but at the same time Macedonia began its rise under the leadership of Philip II, an intelligent and politically astute regent. In 60 he killed his young nephew and claimed the throne. He then went about building a uniquely professional army of citizens. So began the battle for superiority between the highly competitive Athens and Macedonia.
In Athens there were two great forces capable of winning Athens the power she so desperately sought, yet they were opposing forces (although both orators). Isocrates was a renowned teacher of oratory who made many speeches urging Athens to unite under the rule of Philip II and conquer Persia, while Demosthenes was a self-taught orator who was passionately patriotic and strongly believed that Philip was intending to destroy Athens.
Philip II realised that Athens was becoming more and more threatening under the persuasions of Demosthenes and led an army, which triumphed against Athens and her allies. Philip then set to work uniting Greece and asserting his influence by disbanding the Boeotian League and dissolving the Athenian Alliance.
In 6 B.C., whilst marching in a parade to show his triumph and fearlessness, Philip II was assassinated by Pausanias, who was then hunted down and killed. Philip's death did not see the decline of Macedonia (as Pelopidas and Epaminondas' deaths had done to Thebes). Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander, who was to become the most famous Grecian leader to unite the city-states under a unified government. He had taught his son so well that Alexander was ready to take over the leadership of Macedonia in the same exemplary fashion as Philip had done.
The leaders in fourth century Greece were the key to each city-states rise to, or fall from power. Had it not been for Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Philip II and Alexander the states of Thebes and Macedonia would never have built their empires to dominance; if King Agesilaus and Lysander had led Sparta more nobly and not been led so furiously by their hubris, Sparta may have retained her former brilliance; and if Athens had not been conflicted by the arguments of Demosthenes and Isocrates then Athens may have been able to defeat the Macedonians. With out the strength and courage of their leaders as warriors, orator and figureheads no city-states were capable of successfully pursuing a stronghold over Greece.
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