The Begginings of the International Style

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in The Begginings of the International Style, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your The Begginings of the International Style paper at affordable prices with custom writing service!International Style and How it Came to Be

The modern movement in architecture known as the International Style emerged into Europe and the United States around the 10's. The key players in this new style of architecture gave a new direction to building structure by emphasizing and lightening the structure while at the same time allowing it to enclose large dynamic spaces. With the use of steel frames, curtain walls, u-shaped buildings, set backs and reinforced concrete, the International Style was the new precedent for any building looking to become sleeker and more functional. In his book, The Sources of Modern Architecture, Nikolaus Pevsner writes about the emergence of this new style, how it was formed and who helped to shape it.

Before the International Style can be defined, one must look to the past to see the buildings and their architects who would be the influence for this modern style. First of the buildings that would later play a large role in the evolution of architectural style was the Crystal Palace (c. 1851) by the non-architect, Joseph Paxton. His use of iron and large eight foot modules of cut glass created and open span of lighted area over eighteen acres. This building designed for the Great Exhibition in 1851 was amazing because of its ability to be constructed and deconstructed with rapidity. By bolting the cast iron together it made it strong but also easy to take apart. This was essential when dealing with the million square feet of glass used to create the building. Second of the influential structures is seen with the use of iron and steel combined. Gustave Eiffel gave way to a 84 ft vertical wonder known as the Eiffel Tower (c. 188). His structure created for the 188 exposition was an example of form and fluidity in steel that would hint at the idea of taller structures. As buildings would soar vertically, the use of passenger elevators would become part of the function of structure. This all would become more important as seen in later works by Louis Sullivan and William Le Baron Jenney.

The need for the "skyscraper" would soon become evident. Soaring costs of land required that buildings project upward. Now with the use of the passenger elevator, architects were able to design buildings that would rise higher than the five story buildings of the past. The Chicago School of Architects was the key influences in American Architecture during the turn of the century, each contributing with their own revolutionary ideas. In the designing of the first Leiter Building, Jenney was faced with figuring out a way to build a tall, heavy building on the marsh soil of Chicago. His solution was to use columns in a spread foot design that would bear more weight. On top of these would be the first ever use of hollow iron columns enclosed in a mason bearing curtain wall to bear its own weight. This would help the steel beams, which in turn would bear their own weight on every floor. The top floors were of Bessemer steel made into the beams and girders for additional support. The aesthetics of the building were "a-styler" in design utilizing piers and spandrels for a continuing patter from top to bottom with large plate glass windows.

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Also from Chicago was Louis Sullivan. In his book, Ornamentation in Architecture, Sullivan describes how ornamentation should be put on hold so that the concentration could be solely on the construction of the building "in the nude" and that "form should follow function".However, Sullivan himself could not stay away from his own new ideas of ornamentation. Borrowing heavily from nature, his design of the Troescher Building, Sullivan embraces a new form of ornamentation. He believed that the ornamentation be an integrated into the building, not simply "stuck on". The piers of this building burst into flowers on top while the spandrels have a flower/vine motif. Another of Sullivan's innovations for architecture was the Odd Fellows Temple. Because of new strict zoning laws, buildings were not allowed to cover the entire lot in a block like fashion from bottom to top. His solution to this problem was the idea of the "set back". He would allow the first couple of stories to encompass the lot forming and "X" shape. From those two buildings another building set slightly back would rise from it. Another of Sullivan's buildings that would play heavily in the advancement of design was the Wainwright Building. His use of bracing and riveted steel frame made for a sturdy structure. Its reinforced concrete and terra cotta tiles for fireproofing were key to its design. It is formatted on the principle of a column, with a base, shaft and capitol all topped off with a cornice that is classical in design giving it a monolithic look.Another one of Sullivan's building that followed the pattern of a column was his Guaranty Building in New York. He formed the twelve stories into a "U" shaped design that formed the look of base, shaft and capitol. By arranging the building this way, it gave it a lighter, sturdier construction. All of it was ornamented in geometric shapes with spandrels made from terra cotta.

In the same vein as Sullivan's botanical motif, a new era of design was sweeping the late eighteen hundreds until it fell out of favor around 110.Known as the "New Art", Art Nouveau artists liberated the arts by incorporating modern materials and themes with naturalistic ideas and design.Art Nouveau can be seen in the styles of not only architecture but also the applied and decorative arts, as well as in sculpture and painting. The movement began in Western Europe in the 1880s when artists and craftsmen made a break with the styles of the past.Signatures of the style not only incorporated plant form, but long, thin drawn out lines, concave and convex forms, whiplash lines in asymmetrical, non-repeating forms.

Victor Hortas Maison du Peuple (186-) is what Pevsner calls the Art Nouveau version of the American office building, "both dependent on iron, but in exactly opposite ways". The Americas use iron as a support that is covered in a curtain wall, while Horta used iron as an integral part of the design. Because the iron is curving in a decorative matter it doesn't give of a "utilitarian" appearance. The curving walls between the masses of brick, iron and glass give an aesthetically pleasing look at the architecture. Hortas use of curving thin lines and shapes can also be seen in his Tassle House. It too showcases its exposed cast iron structure to add to the decorative townhouse with its centralized floor plan. Here the bay windows add to the effect that the building is undulating with the convex/concave style of Art Nouveau. The interior of the building follows through with the curving whiplash lines, incorporating them into the staircase, walls and floor mosaics.

Hector Guimard was equally important in this movement, most notably creating the Paris Metro entrances at the turn of the century. He used the nature inspired motifs in each of his entrances, all with curvilinear lines. His streetlamps metamorphosed into a stem for the light post and a flower for the light. Each entrance to the subway is designed differently, even creating one of the entrances to look like a dragonfly spanning over the top of the awning. His Hotel Guimard is an architectural illusion. With his use of a facade for the front, he creates undulating curves that are Baroque in style.

When Art Nouveau was waning out of favor, a new phase of architecture was being ushered in. As seen in Henri Van de Velde's design of the Werkbund Theater, it is almost International Style with its straight lines and horizontal windows. The Werkbund was a group that believed in returning to the craft aesthetic. This idea of "form follows function" may also be seen in the vertical bands of windows, glass walls and geometric cubicles in Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank.His use of thin sheets of marble with exposed bolts gives the structure a geometric pattern. He also used these same ideas on his own house, Villa Wagner, only this time they had slight classical overtones with the flat, corniced roof.

Another new design in buildings that would be used by several architects including Perret and Wright was the use of the cantilever.Perret would use reinforced concrete to allow the glass to be projected out, allowing the weight to be supported without the interior walls. This opened up floor plans, allowing for a more spacious interior. Wright too used this idea in his structures to allow for a more naturalistic, flowing space.

With the avocation of "form follows function" new schools of design and thought opened up. The leaders of this new era from the Bauhaus understood that functionality was key, and that determined what form the style would take. Stripping down the aesthetic to create a workable environment. They understood this new International Style was about a stripped down look, no more over the top ornamentation or design. By utilizing the modern materials like reinforced concrete and steel, buildings could soar in an unfettered new way without the old ideas of the past cluttering up the new tomorrow. The desire for function was now at their fingertips.

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Blights Plea

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Alcoholism comes in various forms.There is your typical alcoholic that drinks every day all day and gets nothing done. There is also the alcoholic who drinks all the time but can hold a steady job.Then there is another type of alcoholic, the binge drinker, which is the most common drinking pattern in colleges. This form of alcoholism has gotten a lot of attention as of late.The reason for the sudden attention is because of the recent deaths and near deaths in college students. Aside from deaths, there are many serious consequences of binge drinking.To help stop the rising death rate and other alcohol related problems, colleges are pushing preventive and treatment measures with limited success to date.

In 14 when the first thorough study of college drinking was made, undergraduates drank no more than others their age, and college life did not encourage excessive "tippling" (Thompson 6).In 1 at Rutgers University a young man died at a fraternity initiation party from consuming more than twenty shots of alcohol in less than an hour (Nathan 15). This incident triggered an interest in binge drinking in colleges and also in the role the fraternities play in promoting heavy drinking. In 1 Henry Wechsler, PhD, the Director of College Alcohol Studies at the Harvard School of Public Health conducted a survey of drinking pattern in a nationally representative sample of college students.It was the first study that took into consideration gender differences.Binge drinking was defined as the consumption of five or more drinks for men in a row and four or more for women in the row at least once in the two weeks preceding the survey (Wechsler 167). Overall 44% of the students were binge drinkers.Many colleges started to implement preventive measures at that point. Wechsler repeated his study in 17 and 1.The results stayed the same. Overall 44% of the college students are still binge drinkers, but in 1 drinking on college campuses continued a trend toward becoming more strongly polarized almost 1 in 5 students (1%) was an abstainer, and almost 1 in 4 (%) was a frequent binge drinker, both groups representing an increase from previous surveys (15% and 1% respectively in 1).

For the binge drinkers the intensity of their drinking increased significantly between 1 and 1.In 1, a greater percentage of both male and female students drank on 10 or more occasions; usually binged when they drank; were drunk three or more times in the past month; and drank to get drunk (Wechsler 10).The same type of students, the fraternity or sorority house residents and members of Greek organizations, and students who were white, male and were binge drinkers in high school had the highest rate of binge drinking in 1 and stayed the same in 17 and 1 (Wechsler 14).

Why do these college students still drink this way even though colleges started many preventive measures and programs, and many students still die from binge drinking?Some of the deaths are highly publicized, students know about them in all colleges. While no one counts the number of college students who die from alcohol use, Dr. David Anderson of George Mason University in Fairfax, VA, estimates that at least 50 die a year (Thompson 65).

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There are many reasons why college students drink.Many college students started to develop a pattern of binge drinking in high school, and they just continued the already established behavior (Weschler 1677). Some students drink like this every day, others drink like this two or three times a week.Fraternity and sorority initiation parties are where the binge drinking is the most rampant, although there are other occasions to party too.College students seem to be driven to this type of behavior.Many feel that these are my college years, and I need to start partying. Peer pressure is another contributing factor to this type of alcoholism. Lot of them consider drinking as "cool", and it gives them a sense of belonging to a group.

Another contributing factor is that college students can usually get drinks very cheaply in community bars, or by paying a small cover charge and then you get all you can drink (Thompson 67). Another reason is that drinking traditionally occupied a unique place in campus life.On many campuses, drinking behavior that would elsewhere be classified as alcohol abuse maybe socially acceptable or even socially attractive despite the documented implication in automobile crashes, violence, suicide, and high-risk sexual behavior (Wechsler 1677).For many students this is the first time that they are away from home, away from their parents and their warning against the evils of alcohol (Nathan ).Many college students drink because of genetic predisposition, parental drinking practices, or even birth order(Mayer ).

Another problem is that college binge drinkers don't see themselves as having a problem with alcohol (Wechsler 15).They see it as having a good time enjoying the college experience.But recent surveys have concluded that these binge drinkers have an alcohol problem or an alcohol problem in the making.These binge drinkers have classic denial (Nathan 17). What they don't realize is that they do can injure or kill either themselves or others.Recent surveys in 1 and again in 1 by Harvard's Public Health Department concluded that frequent binge drinkers are much more likely to experience serious health and other consequences than non-binge drinkers or abstainers.They have hangovers, do something they regret, miss a class, drop out of college, get hurt, or hurt someone, engage in unplanned and/or unprotected sex, get into trouble with campus or local police, and drive after they had drank (Wechsler 1677).These college students who do this don't even think twice about half the things they do. They still say that it's all in good fun.

Binge drinkers do not only cause problems for themselves but also for other students, which is considered the second hand effect of binge drinking. Examples are loss of sleep, not being able to study, or having to care for a drunk roommate (Wechsler 1676).

College administrators, staff and even the students are much more aware of the problem than in the past.Preventive measures are becoming the norm at colleges since Wechsler did the first survey of college binge drinking.Many are offering substance free housing, extensive education on alcoholism and counseling.Also, 8% of the colleges in the survey prohibited keg deliveries to dormitories.Many colleges started to implement restrictions on alcohol sales at intercollegiate sporting events, restriction on alcohol advertising, and are assigning a certain individual that is in charge of issues related to alcohol and drug abuse (Wechsler 4). Despite all these measures it is surprising that the overall binge drinking rate in colleges did not decrease from 1 to 1, and that the percent of the heavy binge drinkers is up.Some colleges are also looking for community support so underage students would not be able to purchase alcohol at all.

In conclusion I think that colleges are doing a pretty good job in trying to keep the problem under somewhat control.But you can't control a person or the way a person was brought up.So for some students its just life as they see it everyday since youth because their parents were alcoholics, or some kids just started drinking early to cope with their problems.It is difficult to get something that they just know as regular and put the label on it and expect that everyone changes over to abstinence.Not all will be able to get help but the ones that do should count to the colleges' efforts. I believe they should cut down alcohol advertisements in college areas, and they should make a seminar that all the students are required to attend and get some up front information about what happens when you binge drink. They might also try to promote alcohol free activities and have different types of college events where you are not allowed to drink or go to get drunk.

Maybe we go about this all the wrong way and instead of breathing down all college students' necks, we should try to look deeper for the answer.Start to research what makes these kids drink more from their own mouths. Since many binge drinkers started in high school, working with high schools should reduce the problem of binge drinking in college.The most serious offenders should be referred to treatment centers, and even be expelled them from college.The traditions of the fraternities and sororities should be changed also to reduce binge drinking.The goal is to change the norm of college drinking, but it will take time.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

·Howard, George S., and Peter E. Nathan ed. Alcohol Use and Misuse by

Young Adults. Notre Dame University of Notre Dame Press, 14.

·Mayer, John E., and William J. Filstead. Adolescence and Alcohol.

Cambridge Ballinger Publishing Company, 180.

·Wechsler, Henry, PhD., et al. "Health and Behavioral Consequences of

Binge Drinking in College." Journal of the American Medical Association 7 Dec.14 167-1677.

·Thompson, J.J. "Plugging the Kegs." U.S. News and World Report

6 Jan. 18 6-67.

·Wechsler, Henry, PhD., et al. "College Binge Drinking in the 10's A

Continuing Problem." Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. 6 Apr. 001.http//www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/rpt000/CAS000rpt.html

·Wechsler, Henry, PhD., et al. "What Colleges Are Doing About Student

Binge Drinking." Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. 8 April 001.

http//www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/alcohol/surveyrpt.html

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Investigation of Osmosis in Potato Tissue

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Investigation of Osmosis in Potato Tissue, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Investigation of Osmosis in Potato Tissue paper at affordable prices with Live Paper Help!Investigation of Osmosis in Potato Tissue

I will be carrying out an investigation into the factors that affect osmosis in potato tissue. In order to carry this out, I will need some good background knowledge

Background Knowledge

If a dilute solution is separated from a concentrated solution by a partially permeable membrane, water diffuses across the membrane from the dilute to the concentrated solution. This is known as osmosis.

A partially permeable membrane is porous but allows water to pass through it more rapidly than dissolved substances.

Since a dilute solution contains more water molecules than a concentrated solution, there is a diffusion gradient that favours the passage of water from the dilute to the concentrated solution.

In living cells, the cell membrane is partially permeable and the cytoplasm and vacuole (plant cells) contain dissolved substances. As a result, water tends to diffuse into cells by osmosis if they are surrounded by a weak solution, for example fresh water. If the cells are surrounded by a stronger solution like seawater, the cells may lose water through osmosis.

The water potential of a solution is a measure of whether it is likely to lose or gain water molecules from another solution. A dilute solution, with its high amount of free water molecules, is said to have higher water potential than a concentrated solution, because water will flow from the dilute to the concentrated solution (from a high water potential to a low water potential). Pure water has the highest possible water potential because water molecules will flow from it to any other aqueous solution, no matter how dilute.

The cytoplasm of a plant cell and the cell sap in its vacuole contains salts, sugars and proteins which effectively reduce the concentration of free water molecules inside the cell. The cell wall is freely permeable to water and dissolved substances, but the cell membrane of the cytoplasm is partially permeable. If a plant cell is surrounded by water or a solution more dilute than its contents, water will pass into the vacuole by osmosis. The vacuole will expand and press outwards on the cytoplasm and cell wall. The cell wall of a mature plant cell cannot be stretched, so there comes a time when the inflow of water is resisted by the un-stretchable cell wall.

This has a similar effect to inflating a soft bicycle tyre. The tyre represents the firm cell wall, the floppy inner tube is like the cytoplasm and the air inside corresponds to the vacuole. If enough air is pumped in, it pushes the inner tube against the tyre and makes the tyre hard. A plant cell with the vacuole pushing out on the cell wall is said to be turgid and the vacuole is exerting turgor pressure on the cell wall. If the vacuole loses water for any reason, the cells will lose their turgor and become flaccid.

Factors that might affect Osmosis

FactorReason

Length of potatoIf one potato is larger than another, then that means one will have a larger surface area. Having a larger surface area will increase the rate of osmosis as the cells will be able to absorb more. I will need to keep the lengths the same.

Amount of solutionHaving more solution could increase the rate of osmosis as there are more free water molecules. Having less would have the opposite effect.

TimeIf I take the potato out from the solution too early then the cells might not have reached their water potential. I need to make sure each potato is taken out after the same amount of time.

PressureAfter I have taken the potato out from the solution, I will need to dry it before I weigh it (to take off the excess surface water still on). I will do this by rolling the cylinder of potato on a piece of blotting paper. However I need to keep the pressure of rolling the same because if I roll too hard some water from the cells may be squeezed out, ruining my experiment.

TemperatureThe temperature may affect the reliability of the experiment for example at extreme temperatures the cells of the potato may die and at less extreme temperatures the experiment may be speeded up. To keep this from happening, all the test tubes will be kept in the same place and at the same time of the one-hour experiment.

The PotatoDifferent potatoes have different ages and sizes, which means one potato might have more water in it than another.

EvaporationThis is because if the sugar solution evaporates past the level of the potato, then the potato sample will have less surface area in the solution so this would make osmosis happen much slower. To stop any solution evaporating a cork lid can be placed on top of the test tube.

Prediction

From my background biological knowledge on osmosis, I predict that

The weaker the concentration of the salt solution, the greater the amount of water that enters the potato tissue by osmosis. Therefore the mass will increase when I reduce the concentration of the solution.

Variables involved

For this experiment I would expect to havedifferent variables, Independent, Dependent, and fixed variables, which all helps me to plan and explain the experiment thoroughly.

The Independent variable (factors you change), the thing that I will be changing in this investigation into the factors affecting osmosis, is the concentrations of the solution that helps me to investigate osmosis with potato tissues. The different concentrations will be changed to see the result of the potatoes when placed in different molar salt solutions.

Dependent Variable (factors that you measure), the things that Ill be measuring in this experiment on osmosis is the mass change and length change of the potatoes placed in different molarities of salt solutions. I will record the masses in grams by using a balance and the length changes by using a ruler.

Fixed Variables (factors that you keep the same), the things that I have chosen to keep the same in each individual experiment to keep it a fair test are

1.Amount of Solution

.Time left for osmosis to occur

.Pressure at which dried

4.The Potato

5.Temperature

6.Apparatus

Apparatus

· Cork Borer

· Water

· Forceps

· Timer

· Measuring cylinder

· Blotting Paper

· Potato

· 0.m, 0.4m, 0.6m, 0.8m, 1 molar of water solutions

· Weighing balance

· Test tubes

· Test tube rack

· Cling Film

· Sticky labels

· Ruler

Safety procedures

Safety is an important aspect in every experiment, even if the experiment seems to be very harmless. This is why Ill be taking this into consideration.

I will be using a very sharp knife, which could injure someone if its not handled properly. I will also be very careful that the solutions dont get into our bodies internally, just in case, because we are not fully aware of the damage it could do to us. I will also be wearing an apron due to any solutions getting to my clothes.

But other than that, there werent any bigger matters to be cautious of.

Method

I plan to carry out this experiment by using all the safety issues and fair testing procedures to give me the most reliable and most accurate set of results.

I plan to have a range of salt solutions prepared with concentrations from 0M to 1.0M, in intervals of 0., (so I will only be taking 6 different molarities, as this should be more than enough to explain the effects of the potato on osmosis). Then sections of potato will be cut using a cork borer and knife to equal lengths (5cm) keeping the surface area constant. I will then measure each tissue of potato using a measuring scale, measured in grams. I will then add 10ml of each concentration of water solution in two test tubes, giving me a total of 1 test tubes, and labelling each molar reading. Then to each test tube a cut piece of potato will be added and its concentration added to the label. These will be left for 1 hour. Then the potato pieces will be removed from the test tubes with the forceps, and surface solution on the potato will be removed using blotting paper. I will then measure the potatoes again, recording its change in mass by weighing them. I will then be taking the two readings of each molar concentration. This is because I will be doing a repetition of the experiment, as it will save me valuable time. These results will be taken for each concentration in order to get an average and reduce the effect of anomalous resulting.

As it is difficult to get the cut potato pieces to the same mass it was decided that I would use a percentage change in mass that will be used to compare the data in the results, as this would be far more accurate. I will do this by taking the difference in mass after and divide it by the mass before, and multiply it by 100.

After looking at my preliminary work it suggested that there wasnt enough concentrations of water to compare each result to each other, so their will be 6 different sugar concentrations to choose from for the actual experiment. The timing of the potatoes in my preliminary work was left for too long but this is an advantage, as I now know the suitable amount of time to leave the potato in for. I will therefore be leaving the potato in the solution for 1 hour. I will also be measuring the mass change as a percentage as it will be more appropriate so that reasonable results could be obtained.

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What is Sociology

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What is sociology? Briefly, trace its development, commenting on early sociologists'

ambition for a scientific study of society.

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Sociology is "the attempt to understand how society works. It studies the relationship between people, how those relationships form part of broader sets of relationships between social groupings, and how such groupings and institutions are related to the under society…"

(BRITISH SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION)

Sociology demonstrates the need to take a much broader view of why we are as we are and how we act. There are and have been a diversity of approaches to the development of social thinking and there has never been a discipline in which there is a body of ideas that all accept are valid. It is about our own lives, our own behaviour and is therefore complex and difficult to study. The practice of Sociology is involves the ability to think imaginatively and to detach oneself from any preconceived ideas about social life. It can also increase self understanding and influence our own futures from what we learn.

This objective and systematic study of human behaviour is a relatively recent development with its beginnings being found in the late eighteenth century. Any study or discovery was initially expressed in religious terms or drawn from well known myths and superstitions.

The French Revolution of 178 marked a breakthrough in the abandonment of traditional ideas promoting those more secular such as liberty and equality.

During the Industrial Revolution in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, there was a broad spectrum of social and economic transformations. These rises of industry lead to migration from land to urban areas resulting in new forms of social relationships.

Society as a whole has always been curious as to how we behave. The rise of a scientific approach in understanding the world brought about radical changes to our perspectives and outlook. Sociology emerged, as did biology, chemistry and physics as part of this important intellectual process and '…the shattering of traditional ways of life challenged thinkers to develop a new understanding of both the social and natural worlds.'

Sociology embraces a variety of theoretical views. The disagreement between theoretical standings and viewpoints can occasionally be quite radical and these differences can occasionally produce complex issues due to the problem of subjecting our own behaviour to study.

Auguste Comte (178-1857) can be seen as a key founder of the subject due to his coinage of the term, 'sociology'. Comte was a French social thinker, often deemed eccentric whose thinking reflected the turbulent events of his age. As the founder of 'Positivism', the idea that the only true knowledge is scientific knowledge, Comte set up the concept of 'The law of three stages'. This claimed that human efforts to understand the world have passed through a theological stage, the belief that society was an expression of God's will, a metaphysical stage, that society was seen to be natural not supernatural, and a positive stage, encouraging the application of scientific techniques to the social world. Comte regarded sociology as the final science to develop

Comte's vision was never actually realised but it had great influence on and contributed to sociology as the science of society and on its becoming an academic discipline.

Like Comte, Emile Durkheim (1858-117) another French writer, believed social life must be studied with the same objectivity as scientists study the natural world. Durkheims influence, however, had a much more lasting influence on modern sociology.

Durkheim tried to free the study of society from philosophical concepts and replace them with more rigorous scientific ones, in order to define sociology as a science comparable to the physical sciences of biology chemistry and physics.

Functionalism was 'a theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they performed and on a view of society as a complex system whose various parts work in a relationship to each other in a way that needs to be understood'. This was one of Durkheims most prominent and decisive viewpoints.

His most famous principle, however, was to 'study social facts as things' to study aspects of social life that's shape our actions as individuals such as the economy or the influence of religion. He conceded that social facts exercise coercive power over individuals. Durkheim argued that people often follow patterns that are general to society such as lifestyles, morals and religious beliefs and that processes of change in the modern world, the division of labour, are so rapid and intense that they give rise to major social difficulties and have disruptive effects. This theory leads to Durkheim's famous concept of 'anomie', a feeling of aimlessness or despair provoked by modern social life.

One of Durkheim's most influential, although controversial, studies was that of Suicide and how on the outside it appears to be a purely personal act but that social factors exert a fundamental influence- anomie being one of these.

Karl Marx (1818-188) is one of the most well known if not, arguably, the most influential classical sociologist. However, his ideas contrast sharply with those of Comte and Durkheim.

Marx was not so conscious to develop sociology in to the science of society but through his witnessing of the growth of factories and industrial production, he became continuously aware of the social inequalities and class struggle that followed. He concentrated primarily on change in modern times as opposed to through history and found that the most important changes tied in with the development of industry and through that, capitalism.

Capitalism, a system of production contrasting radically with previous economic systems, saw Marx at his most dynamic. He saw it as a class system in which class relations are characterized by conflict and the relationship between classes to be exploitative. Marx came up with the concept of the proletariat, an urban based industrial working class who had previously supported themselves by working on the land but had now moved to the expanding industrializing cities.However, Marx saw the relationship between this proletariat class and its superior capitalizing class to be extremely unbalanced and also believed that in time; class conflict over economic resources would become more acute.

Marx's main theory was his belief that social change is prompted primarily by economic influences and that all class conflicts derive originally from an economic background. He believed that a workers revolution, overthrowing the capitalist system and providing a new 'classless' society was inevitable.

Marx's recognition in the field of sociology is predominantly due to his concern with connecting economic problems to social institutions and his writing, diverse in topics, was rich in sociological insights. Marx has had a far reaching effect on the twentieth century world and more than a third of the world's population live in societies ruled by a government influenced by Marx's ideas.

Another writer who concentrated on the field of economics, as well as philosophy and history was Max Weber (1864-10). He identified key sociological debates that remain central for sociologists today and was both influenced by and critical of some of Marx's major views, seeing class conflict as a less significant reason for social change.

Weber believed that sociology should focus more on social action as opposed social structures. He argued that human motivation and ideas were the forces behind change and that they had the power to bring about transformations. Unlike Durkheim and Marx, Weber did not believe that structures exist externally of individuals and that they were formed by a complex interplay of actions It was the job of sociology to understand these actions.

Weber came up with the idea of an 'ideal type', conceptual or analytical models that can be used to understand the world forming very useful hypothetical situations.

Weber saw the increasing shift from traditional beliefs to those of science and this development of science, modern technology and bureaucracy was described by Weber collectively as, 'rationalization'. This was a concept referring to the process by which modes of precise calculation and organisation, involving abstract rules and procedures, increasingly come to dominate the social world. In Weber's view, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism were proof of a larger trend towards rationalization, a concept which has put him to the forefront of classical sociological thinking.

All of the above classical sociologists saw sociology as a science and agreed unanimously that sociology is a discipline in which we set beside our personal view if the world and look more carefully at the influences that shape our lives and society.

Comte and Marx established some of the basic issues of sociology, such as Positivism, later elaborated on by Durkheim and Weber. However the three employed very different approaches in their study of the social world. Where Durkheim and Marx focused on the forces external of the individual, Weber was more interested on the ability of individuals to act creatively on the outside world. Such differences have persisted throughout the history of sociology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY GIDDENS, Anthony; Sociology 4th edition Polity Press.

www.socio.ch

www.sociologicalimagination.net

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Cloning is unethical

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David Hendler

Cloning is Unethical Behavior

February , 17 scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland shocked the scientific community.(Federspell, Jeff , 56)The world stood in awe as Dr. Ian Wilmut explained the cloning of a sheep named Dolly.The fact that a mammal had been successfully cloned raised heated discussion on whether human cloning was possible and if it should be explored.Philosophers, theologians, and scientists debated whether human cloning is moral or ethical.Soon after the discovery, President Clinton enacted legislation to prevent federal aid to any project committed to human cloning and further asked that no such attempts should be made by any organization.Based on the knowledge held currently, cloning is an unethical action because it violates the inherent rights of humans, threatens the general welfare of society, and disrespects the autonomy and dignity of a human being.Help with essay on Cloning is unethical

In order for an action to be considered ethical it must not violate any inherent rights of human beings.Amnesty International is a worldwide campaigning movement who's purpose is to determine what rights human beings should be granted.Amnesty works to promote the rights listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Their adopted declaration contains the following Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person, no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, no one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms, and everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.(Amnesty International)If an action violates any of these stated rights, it is unethical.For example, murder is deemed unethical by our society.When a person willingly takes the life of another human, he directly violates that person's right to life and liberty.Rape is unethical because it violates a man or woman's liberty and security of person.Nobody should be forced into an illegitimate situation such as rape where they have to endure such harsh treatment.Additionally, the immoral act of stealing violates someone's right to own property.All of these unethical actions in some way or another violate one of the victims inherent rights.

An action is considered to be unethical when it threatens the general well being or peace of the human race.It is perfectly logical that society label certain actions which inhibit a positive, cohesive society as unethical.For example, if people murdered one another frequently, our peaceful society would gravitate towards violence and revenge.Terror and fear would influence people's lives.It is essential that murder be kept to a minimum in order for society to continue peacefully.If burglary were widespread, only people with the power to protect their items could hold property.For the most part, actions which are deemed unethical are regarded as such because it would be disastrous if the majority of society took part in these actions.

An action can also be considered unethical when it disrespects the autonomy and dignity of a human being.Immanuel Kant, a highly recognized philosopher of the 1700's, stated, "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means."(Bonevac, 8)Kant continues to explain that people should be treated as autonomous beings and respected for their human dignity. (Bonevac, 8)Accordingly,people should not be looked upon as objects but rather as "ends" which deserve our respect.For example, rape blatantly uses a man or woman as a sexual tool, disregarding that person's individual will.Murder and slavery blatantly disrespect a person's autonomy and dignity.In short, according to Kant, and action is unethical if it "uses" someone as a means instead of treating them as an independent entity.

Rape, murder, and stealing are a few of the actions society has labeled unethical throughout history.By observation, it appears that each of these unethical actions share the common criteria of violating rights, threatening society, and disrespecting a human's dignity.Nonetheless, their are abnormal cases in which arguments can be made condoning the various unethical actions.Assisted suicide is highly controversial, but legal in some states.Many people make the valid argument that a doctor should have the right to take the life of a patient under extreme circumstances. The case in which a doctor assists a terminally ill patient in committing suicide may not be considered unethical.However, this is a case in which the affected party is willingly giving up his right to life and liberty.It is not as if dying is against the sick person's will.In this respect, murder could be considered a morally acceptable alternative.There are other extreme cases which can be constructed to advocate the morality of certain unethical actions, but in common practice actions which meet unethical criteria will continue to cause harm and create problems.

Cloning can certainly violate the rights of human beings.Humans have the right to life, liberty, and not to be subjected to cruel treatment.Cloning mammals is a new procedure and is not void of error.It took 77 tries to finally clone one healthy sheep named Dolly.(Federspell, Jeff , 56)Numerous other sheep were born with abnormalities and many died soon after birth.(Federspell, Jeff , 56)If this were attempted on humans, it would result in multiple miscarriages by the mother and possibly severe developmental abnormalities of any resulting child.These children would suffer countless deaths until the science was perfected. The National Bioethics Advisory Committee, which advises the president, stated, "At this time, the significant risks to the fetus and physical well being of a child created by somatic cell nuclear transplantation cloning outweigh arguably beneficial uses of the technique."(Shapiro, Harold T. )

The psychological harms to the child could be drastic. It is impossible to foresee the emotional and physiological repercussions that a clone would face entering a society in which many people find cloning to be amoral.A clone may feel as if as if he/she has lost their sense of identity or uniqueness in the world, because a genetic duplicate of them has already lived a number of years.(Shapiro, Harold T.)It seems as if bringing a clone into our society would be more of a burden to the cloned child than a benefit.Science would be creating a life not worth living.The innocent child that is cloned should not be subject to the cruel treatment imposed on it.

Additionally, cloning is a threat to the general welfare of the human race.If cloning became widespread, the genetic makeup of the world would become more similar.An epidemic or disease such as the Bubonic Plague could hold catastrophic consequences.Less people would survive the epidemic because there would be less genetic diversity from person to person.(Federspell, Jeff , 56)If cloning were not introduced, some people would be better apt at fighting off a disease than others, and they would be able to hold the human race together.Furthermore, a race which was composed of like genes would run into problems when breeding.Birth defects associated with incest would become commonplace if cloning became a widely used method of reproduction.If cloning is not controlled, it could cause terrible population problems.

Cloning is unethical because it disrespects the dignity of a human being.One of the proposed benefits to cloning is that people in need of organ or tissue transplants could have a clone made of themselves.They could then use the clone to provide needed transplants.This would be unethical because it uses another human to help oneself.Scientists in favor of cloning argue that measures would be taken to make sure that the clone was not human, or was otherwise brain dead.The argument arises around when a human is actually considered a human.If it is at conception, using a cloned embryo for transplants or tissues is the same as murder.If being considered human means being able to take part in rational thought, then using a clone for organs would be permissible.The ethical question here isIs it morally acceptable to end the future of an embryo in order to save the future of an aged human?According to Kant, using the embryo or brain dead human body would be unethical.Using a clone for tissue would be ending the life of a human and would be using that child as a means to facilitate one's own life.Another person should not have their right to life violated to save someone else's.Creating a human life to be butchered for spare parts, is blatantly using a human to achieve one's own goals.

Cloning is a controversial topic which deserves serious attention.It meets the criteria of an unethical action and is similar to other unethical actions such as rape, murder, and stealing.The human race does not have the ethical right to put other humans at risk.Cloning is a harmful practice which is a legitimate threat to society and should be dealt with the utmost caution.

AmnestyInternational

http//www.amnesty.org/aboutai/udhr.htm

Bonevac, Daniel, Today's Moral Issues Classic and Contemporary Perspectives, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, California.16

Federspell, JeffThe World Book Encyclopedia, 18

Harold T. Shapiro, National Bioethic Advisory Commission,"Cloning Human Beings"

http//bioethics.gov/pubs/cloning1/chapter4.pdf

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Discussion of three works from antiquity

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In visiting the Metropolitan museum of art in New York City I have chosen to discuss a group of three ancient Greek works.I have chosen three because I would like to emphasis the changes that have taken place from the Archaic period through the classical period to the Hellenistic period.Greek art has had and still has a tremendous influence in art, as we know it today.I have chosen pieces that illustrate some of the major evolutions of sculpture through ancient Greece.Through my travel in Europe I have been fortunate to see first hand both original Greek works and the influence these works played in roman times, up through the return to classical antiquity, the Renaissance, and through today.

The first piece of artwork I would like to discuss is the New York Kouros.The Kouros statues were used as funerary markers.This particular Kouros was created around 600 B.C.E and is made out of marble. The technique used is known as a deduction process. The technique consists of starting with a solid slab of marble and then chipping away to reveal the sculpture.It is during this time period when the Greeks become interested in the accuracy of the male anatomy.More emphasis is placed on musculature and the definition of human elements. This time period is soon after the geometric era. The geometric, abstract forms on the sculpture give rise to the anatomical details that are executed in equivalent patterns. One can observe that rather than rounded definition, the muscles are displayed with a line technique.It is also during this time that we start to see freestanding sculpture. In this freestanding sculpture the Greeks try and capture a sense of movement.One foot is placed in front of the other to indicate the movement.The Kouros statues are an idealized representation of the typical human male, or of an ideal god.

Although more realism is apparent in the works of this period from previous periods one can still detect an Egyptian influence.The stance of the figure is similar to the Egyptian posture.We see the statue with one leg forward and his arms rigid held tightly to his side, his fists firm. Many statues in ancient Egypt were made using the same style. For instance the statue of Nenkheftka from Serdab stands in this same pose (Gay Robins 71).Also the stylized hair and enlarged eyes are analogous of Egyptian art.The New York Kouros lacks the fluidity and attention to movement thatis later adapted in Greek works.

The next work of art I chose is the Diskos Thrower.This sculpture was created in the classical period of Greece in the fifth century B.C.It is constructed of a bronze cast, which is the most popular material used by the Greeks. However, much of the bronze artwork has been destroyed and most of what we study from this period are the marble Roman copies. I chose this work because it seems to embody the achievements of the early classical period.Like the New York Kouros there is an attention to anatomy. However, in this sculpture unlike the Kouros, there is a rounded and sculpted element to the muscles of the statue.One is clearly able to see every muscle of the man, anticipating the throw of his diskos. Like the Kouros there was no attempt in capturing individualistic qualities of a particular person.This is the representation of a general idealized athlete.Buy Discussion of three works from antiquity term paper

The sense of determination and concentration of the athlete as he prepares to throw his disk is clear.This is one important evolution that has come to be incorporated into art.The psychological aspect to the human subject plays a great role.There is a beauty that lies in the calm and concentrated demeanor that forms part of a perfectly developed and disciplined body.Here, like in Diskobolos, there is a connection between mind body and spirit.The emphasis is not only on the beauty of the physical body, but in the conviction that lies in the psychology of the figure.In the classical period there was a great attempt to capture a sense of movement.As compared to New York Kouros one can see that there is a more realistic distribution of weight which gives a better sense of movement.Although there is still a slight restrained element, the viewer sees the figure as he is caught in a moment. One can imagine the next movement of the discus switching hands to be thrown.

Many of the features that are attributed to Egyptian influence have been lost by the classical period.The facial features of the man depicted are more in proportion and have a greater sense of realism. The New York Kouros has the archaic smile, which is typical of this period.Now, however, the viewer sees more rounded features with an expression that captures the serious state of the mind of the subject.Also, the function of the sculptures has changed.Many freestanding sculptures in the Archaic period were used as funerary markers for elite or sometimes represented deities.In the classical period sculpture became more specific representations commemorating the greatness of an athlete or the representation of a god. However, in both eras the beauty of the ideal male figure is emphasized.

The last figure I would like to discuss is the sculpture of Eros sleeping.This sculpture was constructed in the Hellenistic period around the third or second century B.C.and is of bronze casting. It is during this period when the serious expressions and rigid movements of earlier Greece become full of expression, dramatic, and more relaxed. One aspect that is consistent through the ancient Greek era is that all sculpture remains complete.The entire piece of work continues to be created completely whole no matter if certain elements were viewed or not. However, during this period new characterization was introduced into art.Now art displayed a realistic portrayal of age, as Eros appears here as a young child.The idealism that consumed the classical period and fourth century gave way to a greater emphasis of realism and the psychological.Sculpture was about the portrayal of the inner being and more emphasis placed on expressing the inner psychology through posture and facial features.

In this sculpture Eros, the god of love, is a plump child sprawled out and relaxed.There is no attempt to create a god with an idealized perfect form.Here the observer can clearly see the chubby body that less than gracefully sleeps soundly on a rock.Asleep on the rock the god has been brought down to earth and is seemingly powerless,a study in the relationship between mental and physical states.(John Griffiths Pedley ).He is the intermediary between the human and the divine and in past works has been shown as a stern force, but now is depicted as a harmless Faun. This study of mental and physical state is one that appears throughout the Hellenistic period.Eroticism is expressed in artwork through the use of figures such as Eros and Aphrodite.Gods can clearly be recognized as a move toward expressing individual uniqueness comes to into play. Earlier portraits concentrated in representing figures in ideal and generalized terms, but now individual characteristics and features are emphasized. The subject matter of sculpture is focused mostly on the tales of mythology with some individual portraits.

In the Hellenistic period unlike the Archaic or classical period, sculptures are characterized by dramatic and complex expressions, postures, and groupings.In the works are an apparent immediacy, intensity and variety of emotional portrayal.There is a greater emphasis placed upon movement in this art period than in previous.One can clearly see the flowing of movement in such works as the Laocoon group compared to the disc thrower of the classical period.In the Laocoon group the exaggeration and flow of movement is apparent in the twisting of the bodies. The posture of the discus thrower is more ridged and lacks the fluid movements. In the Hellenistic artwork there is great attention placed upon detail of both the physical body and the psychological portrait that is conveyed through the physical frame.

The complexity of movement allows the works to be observed from a variety of different viewpoints, unlike previous periods where the viewer was to see the figure from a specific point.This creates a change in the interaction between the viewer and the sculpture.We see sculpture completed during this time as almost a snapshot.It is as if the figure being represented is caught in a moment of time. All emotions and movements at this particular moment have been captured within the piece.

These three works of art are a representation of how Greek art evolved from the rigid and stylized archaic period up to the dramatic emotionally rich works of the Hellenistic period.Greek art has influenced artists for thousands of years.Even after the Roman take over the traditions of Greek art continued. In the fourteenth century during the birth of the Renaissance there was a turn back to antiquity to capture the beauty and perfection of the human form.It is important to be aware of Greek art and culture because the influence it has in our lives.Not only has Greece influenced art, but it has also been the inspiration in such subjects as philosophy and mathematics.These innovations can be seen in through Greek art in the anatomical perfection and their mathematical precision, in both sculpture and architecture.To learn about Greek art and culture is to understand more about our own and the influences that have helped to create our own civilization.

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A Prayer for Own Meany - an instrument of god

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An Instrument Of God

"There are no accidents in life.If something were thrown off course

or disrupted, it would find a way to occur anyway."Philosopher, Michelle

Harowith.Certain individuals believe that there is always the presence of

Write my Essay on A Prayer for Own Meany - an instrument of god

fate in every aspect of life;every action and decision has a divine purpose,

and is allprecisely intertwined .They have no doubt they are instruments

of God and every part of their life has already been drawn out.They know

from the time they are born that they will follow the path that God has

chosen for them.This idea is explored in the novel A Prayer For Owen

Meany, by John Irving.The main character, Owen Meany, is illustrated as

an instrument of God throughout the novel.This is demonstrated through

the tasks that Owen is chosen to perform.Owen acts as the angel of death,

is given signs from God about the date of his death, and has reoccurring

dreams about his purpose in life; to save the children from Vietnam.

The first incident in Owen's life that shows he is an instrument of God

is when he believes he is assigned the task as the angel of death.Owen and

John are inseparable friends and have a sleep over almost every night.

Owen is not close with his parents and looks at John's mother as his own.

She is the only person in Owen's life who gives him any guidance and support.

(Irving, p. 100) One night when Owen sleeps over at John's house he wakes

up in the middle of the night with a fever.Making his way to John's

mother's room,he is frightened by a figure beside her bed.He believes the

figure is the black angel of death and is about to take John's mother's life.

Since he interrupt's the angel of death, at her taskshe reassigns the task

to him."There's an angel in your mother's room.I interrupted it and she

reassigned the task to me.She was about to take your mother's life and now

I am fated to do so."(Irving, p. 10)John did not believe Owen about the

angel and felt it wasabsurd that Owen thought he was going to take John's

mother's life.Owen told John it was only a matter of time before it

happened. The two friends played on a local city baseball team in which

Owen was smaller than all the other kids and could never able to hit the ball

well.The first game of the season was off to a slow start and their team

was considerably behind.The coach was looking to end the game quickly

and told Owen to swing away, knowing he would be the last out.For the first

time in Owen's life he hit the ball and with all his might.The ball flew threw

the air and hit John's mother directly in the temple,killing her instantly.

Owen knew that it was God who had directed his bat because he had never

before been able to hit the ball that hard or far. "Your mother's death was

not an accident it happened for a reason."(Irving, p.10)Owen truly

believes that God directshim every step of the way, and even though he

could not see him,God was telling him what to do.He feels that God had a

presence around him and always guided him."The trick of having faith is

that it is necessary to believe in God without any great or remotely

reassuring evidence."(Irving, p. 111)Owen fealt that he was assigned the

task of John's mother'sdeath and that the decision was already made.

Everything he did was directed by a higher authority.God hadtaken him in;

and Owen would do everything to fulfil God's wishes."God has taken my

hands.I am now Gods instrument."(Irving, p. 7) Owen being assigned

the duty as theangel of death andbyfulfilling the task he is an

instrument of God.

Owen is given a sign byGod that tells him the exact date of his

death,proving he is an instrument of God.From Owen's experience with

John's mother and by foretelling his death he establishes himself as a

prophet.Owen feels he is always able to tell what will happen in his life

whether it be good or bad."He had establishedhimself as a prophet

disquietingly it was his future he seemed to know about."(Irving, p. 01)

Owen loved to act in he localChurch Christmas Plays.This time he played

the ghost of Christmas Past.He felt that the part was perfectly fitted to

him.In the play a ghost reveals the time of Scrooges death. Owen

fainted when the grave appeared because it was his name. "I saw my name

on the grave, it was my name not Scrooges'.There was even a date."(Irving,

p. 45)Later in life when Owen graduates from University he decides to

join the Navy.Owen diesduring his our of duty. After his death John goes

to see Owen's father.Owen's father shows John, the grave.John believes

that Owen's father made the head stone when he died."That aint my work -

Owen did when he was home on leave.He covered it and asked me not to

look at it, as long as he was alive. "(Irving, p. 5)John is astonished by

this and is in disbelief.He thinks back to the Christmas pageant when Owen

said he saw the date of his death.John had assumed that Owen made the

grave and after he died his father added the proper dates.To John

surprise he is wrong once again."I added nothing, he already knew the

date."(Irving, p. 540)Owen knew everything about his death.Hehad the

date correct on the grave. "Monday 18, 168, the day he had said."(Irving,

p. 607)Everything that Owen said had turned out to be true in the end.

John has finally come to the realization that Owen was following orders

from a higher power.Owen could predict the future and tell the past

because he was following God's words."Owen's life was a divine assignment,

as if he were following God's holly orders."(Irving, p. 607)By Owen playing

the ghost of Christmas and being given news from God about the date of his

death, he is an instrument of God.

The final incidentin Owen's life that prove's he is an instrument of

God is when he keeps having a reoccurring dream about his purpose in life.

During the dream, Owen believes his main purpose in life is to save a group

of Vietnamese children.He thinks that he was chosen as an instrument of

God and that it is his duty to perform God's demands."The way you know

some things - your obligations, your destiny or fate - the way you know what

God wants you to do."(Irving, p. 417)While Owen and John are attending

university, God tells Owen through a dream that he must practice a jump

shot with John."It's the same dream every night.He tells me to practice

the shot with you, and I know because of it I will save children from

Vietnam."(Irving, p. 50)For two years Owen has been dreaming about his

future.The dreams seem real and in every dream God give's him direction,

and let's Owen know what to expect.The dreams give him insight that he

will be asaviour of many children.

"In the dream I hear the explosion, I hear

the aftermath, we're all lying on the floor,

all the children are alright but, they are all

holding their ears.The way they look at me

I know two thingsI saved them but, I don't

know how and the children are afraid for me,

I can see it in their faces."(Irving, p. 47)

From the dreams Owen knows that he will be a hero.He does not want to

endure this task but he knows he must accept it. It is not Owen's wishes to

be made famous for his duty in life.Everything he does is because he has

been chosen to.

"I don't want tobe a hero, it's not what I

want to be - it's what I am supposed to be.It's

not that I wantto go Vietnam - it's where I

have to go.It's where I'm a hero."(Irving, p. 471)

At an airport, on the way to Owen's next Navy mission, a terrorist attacks.

Just as in his dream Owen is with small Vietnamese children,he is escorting

a group of them to the rest room when the terrorist strikes.The terrorist

throws a bomb in Owen's direction, which makes him recollect back to his

dream.(Irving, P.47)He tells John it is time for the jump shot, and they

both jump in the air, do the jump shot throwing the bomb out the window.

Owen is killed, and in the end his dream proves to be accurate.

"Owen laid on the ground as the nuns lean

over him, she made the sign of the cross over

him and closed his eye.Owen was gone but he

was right;it was his direction from God to sacrifice

his life for the children."(Irving, p. 474)

Even though Owen is gone, Johnknows that his spirit will always be with

him.John knows that no matter where he is or what he is doing Owen will

always be there to protect him. "Although the sun had set, through one of

the streaks of light, wherever Owen's spirit went, some kind of light always

attended him."(Irving, p. 584) Owen is given the gift of sight through his

dreams and with this gift he is able to realize his purpose as God's

instrument.

Owen acting as the angel of death, being given signs from God about

the date of his death, and having reoccurring dreams about his purpose in

life; to save the children from Vietnam, in the novel A Prayer For Owen

Meany, by John Irving, these events show that Owen is an instrument of

God.People who are instruments of God always believe that their life is a

divine task.Those whofollow the path of God do not believe in miracles,

but in fate.Everythinghappensfor a reason, nothing is an accidental.

PsychologistDevon Swindels says that "Those who are able to offer

undeniable proof of God's existence with in themselves are infinitely blessed

with the power to for see their fate."To be able to live a life that is driven

directly by God, is a life like no other.

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How to get a job in a law firm

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on how to get a job in a law firm. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality how to get a job in a law firm paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in how to get a job in a law firm, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your how to get a job in a law firm paper at affordable prices with Live Paper Help!Securing a Training Contract with a top City law firm is extremely

competitive and difficult. It is worth reflecting though that the reason

the selection procedure is so tough is because of the value of the prize

on offer.

City law firms look for certain skills and certain knowledge to be

demonstrated in a certain way. Legal careers recruiters in city firms

follow fairly uniform application and interview formats and look for

predictable qualities. Undergraduates are not, and are not expected to

be, aware of this. If you are willing to prepare properly for your

application and actively seek out lawyers and legal careers advisers you

will pick up valuable inside information that will assist your

application and give you edge over the thousands of other applicants

after your job.

Edward Kempson has a Training Contract at leading City law firmn. He is

a legal careers advisor for Harrison Careers Services

(edkem@hotmail.com, http//www.harrisoncareers.com , 08707 50 50).

Harrison Careers Services helps students get jobs with City law firms.

The Vacation Placement/Internship

The best way to find out information about a law firm is to complete a

vacation placement or an internship at the firm in question. However,

there are fewer vacation placements available than there are Training

Contracts and as a result they are even more fiercely contested. Every

year several thousand students apply for roughly 80 vacation placements

at each Magic Circle firm. Of those invited to a first interview about 1

in 10 will be offered a place. If you are good enough to secure a

placement you are in a good position to get a full offer at a later

date, providing you do not actively disgrace yourself during your

placement.

The Interview

If you reach the interview phase the job is yours to be won or lost.

Ensure that you are fully aware of everything you submitted in your CV

and be prepared to answer any questions thereon. Concentrate

particularly on areas of content within your application that you

consider to be a little weak. Prepare thoroughly and don't be caught

out. If you are found wanting in this respect you will look lazy and

will fail to give a good account of yourself for the remainder of the

interview.

Ensure you have prepared answers to such obvious questions as 'Why do

you want to be a lawyer?' Make sure your answers are convincing and

full. They must be believable and hopefully true but must also give a

good impression to the recruiter. Work with lawyers and careers advisers

to understand what sets lawyers apart from other professionals.

Understand what lawyers believe distinguishes them from everyone else

and be sure to bring the points up in the interview. Why are you best

suited to following a career as a lawyer and why you would enjoy your

time and succeed at a top law firm?

Prepare for the classic personal competence interview questions, such as

'When have you displayed leadership?' You should have a mental list of

your top achievements from every area of your life. Be able to link the

achievements smoothly to specific questions without undue delay or

difficulty. Revise your general knowledge and current affairs. Be

prepared to think on your feet and spend time thinking about your

attitudes to political and humanitarian issues.

Develop an understanding of macro-economic factors and be prepared to

demonstrate a level of financial knowledge and commercial awareness.

Read the Financial Times or the business section of any major broadsheet

newspaper. You must speak to lawyers and other professionals who work in

the City. Listen to their opinions and then develop your own. Use your

contacts to keep up to date with the most current issues in the business

world. You must be able to demonstrate a level of competence and display

general enthusiasm for business, finance and the City.

It is crucial to research in detail the firm you are applying to. Use as

many sources of information as possible including careers advisors,

magazines and internet resources. Be prepared to describe to the

interviewer how you went about researching the firm. However, nothing is

as valuable or as highly regarded by recruiters as knowledge gleaned

from lawyers with experience of private practise.

The Application

The key to a successful application to a City law firm is simple. The

content and substance of an application must be matched by the

presentation and style of the delivery. At each and every phase, your

application must have sufficient content to convince the recruiters that

you would be a successful and industrious Trainee. You must be able to

discuss the following areas.

- The composition of each firm you are applying to. You must be aware of

all of the different departments in the firm and how they interact with

one another on major deals. Understand the various sub-categories of

those departments. For example, within the Banking and Finance

department at Allen and Overy how do the Asset Finance and Project

Finance teams differ? Who are the major Partners in each department and

what have they been actively involved with recently?

- Recent deals within each department of each firm you apply to. Who or

what was the client, and what part did the firm play to achieve the

wider business objectives of the parties involved in the transaction?

Try to avoid general comments in your answer; what did the firm actually

achieve for the client on a particular deal?

- Which department of the firm are you most interested in and why? You

must have at least 5 convincing arguments why you want to work in the

Capital Markets or Corporate department of a major City law firm.

- How the firm is seeking to develop key sectors of its practise in the

context of the general macro-economic climate. How has the bear market

affected the Corporate M&A team? How can any decline in corporate work

be related to the profitability of the Insolvency team in the Banking

and Finance department?

- Recent hot topics within the legal world. Current regulatory and

compliance issues affecting private corporate practise. For example,

what issues are currently influencing the structuring of derivative

contracts?

It is difficult to acquire the requisite level of insight without

working with a lawyer or a legal expert to help you prepare your

application.

Every time an applicant writes to, or meets with, a legal recruiter the

content of the application must be communicated to the recruiter in a

confident, professional manner. An applicant must have great

presentational skills, but they must be tailored to the firm you are

applying to. Different firms assess CV's in slightly different ways,

according to the type of person they wish to recruit. An application

that may be successful at Macfarlanes may not be successful at the more

traditional Magic Circle firm Slaughter and May because the firms value

personal qualities differently.

I succeeded in securing interviews because I used recruitment

professionals and my contacts within the legal profession to gain inside

knowledge of the structure and business dealings of the top firms that

were not available on website or in brochures. But, crucially, I also

used my contacts to gauge the environment and attitudes at the firm I

was applying to so that I could prepare my application accordingly.

Candidates must be aware how each law firm wishes applications to be

made and by when. Most application deadlines will be the same for all

firms, but some may differ. Do not be caught out. Similarly, most firms

will want applications submitted on-line, but a small number will want

hand written versions. Failure to comply at this early stage will be

disastrous. Ensure that each individual application has a covering

letter attached to it, briefly explaining why you wish to work for the

particular firm you are applying to.

When completing your CV make sure your details are correct and that the

content is of as high a standard as possible. Think carefully about

participating in activities designed impress legal recruiters. Seek to

acquire skills and qualifications to put in your CV. Research the

subject of CV presentation carefully to find the best format possible to

present the content of your application.

Why become a lawyer?

As a lawyer in a City law firm you will be extremely well remunerated

throughout your career. It is estimated by Legal Week that your career

earnings as partner in a Magic Circle firm could be as high as £0

million. You will also have a comparatively secure job in relation to

other financial careers in the city and hold an invaluable professional

qualification. The opportunities for career progression within private

practise are numerous and well defined. A position as a partner, and all

the riches and powers that it entails, can realistically be attained

within 8 years by the most talented and industrious.

Options outside of private practise are varied. Lawyers are employed

in-house inInvestment Banks, Management Consultancies, FTSE 100

companies and by the Government. Equally, training as a lawyer makes it

possible to switch to a non-legal career in finance, business or

commerce. Qualities that are developed during a legal career, such as

corporate and financial knowledge, clarity of thought and expression and

attention to detail, make lawyers sought-after commodities in the City.

Please note that this sample paper on how to get a job in a law firm is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on how to get a job in a law firm, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on how to get a job in a law firm will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Fourth Century Greece

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Fourth Century Greece, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Fourth Century Greece paper at affordable prices

During the fourth century B.C., the political powers in Greece were continually in upheaval as the city-states battled for supremacy. Generally however, many city-states either flourished or regressed in response to their leaders' skill as orators, warriors, and figureheads. The city-states of Sparta (under the government of Kings Lysander and Agesilaus), Athens (under the authority of political orators Demosthenes and Isocrates), Thebes (led by their great generals Pelopidas and Epaminondas) and Macedonia (Ruled by Philip and Alexander), are all examples of how superior leadership during the fourth century was crucial in the battle for a city-states power over Greece.

After Sparta defeated the Aegean cities in the battle at Aegospotami, King Lysander established decarchies (boards of ten Spartiates), supported by Spartan garrisons and harmosts (military governors) to maintain Sparta's stronghold over the Aegean and also to ensure tribute was paid. Whilst at the time this was seen as a politically astute tactic, King Lysander soured Sparta's dominance by encouraging cruel and unrelenting behaviour by the garrisons and harmosts. Sparta's hegemony in Greece was only accepted uncontested for nine years until a coalition rose against Sparta's harsh dominance.

The coalition consisted of Athens, Corinth, Thebes, Argos and other smaller city-states opposed to Sparta's authority. The coalition first battled Sparta at what is called the Corinthian War (4 B.C.), but was defeated at Nemea. The Persians also disliked the uneven distribution if power in Greece and sent gold to support an exiled Athenian, Conon, to battle, and eventually beat the Spartans at Cnidus. This therefore gained Persia, (ruled by Artaxerxes II), the control of the Aegean and subsequently the Spartan garrisons and decarchies were ejected from the Aegean city-states.

Persia then funded the Athenians to rebuild their long walls and refortify their Piraeus. Consequentially the Persians saw that the Athenians had gained too much power and formed allegiance with Sparta to defeat Athens in Hellespont. During this battle Sparta relied heavily on the help of its allies, yet once the campaign had drawn to a conclusion Sparta (and Lysander) claimed the victory as their own. This angered their allies who realised that their many soldiers had died in vain.Order Custom Fourth Century Greece paper

By 87 B.C. the Great King of Persia, Artaxerxes II, was beginning to tire of all the Greek conflicts so he called for representatives from all the city-states assemble in Persia. The Great King laid down an ultimatum for the settlement of the Greeks' conflicts, which stated that all city-states were to remain autonomous except Lemnos, Imbros and Sycros, which would belong to Athens and The Peloponnesian League, which would remain under Spartan control. All states signed the King's Peace in fear of Persia's wealth and influence.

For almost a decade, Greece remained more or less at peace. However, In 8 King Agesilaus set out and seized the Thebans citadel and then went on to destroy the powerful Chalcidian League in 7. But in 78, Thebes revolted and expelled its Spartan garrison. The garrisons that Agesilaus reinstated in Boeotia were expelled one by one and eventually no more were replaced.

Sparta had become far too selfish. As a response to the ever-growing hatred of Sparta, Athens established a second Athenian League (77 B.C.) in order to defeat Sparta. In 76 Athens and her allies defeated the Spartans and regained the principal power over Greece.

In 71 a revision of the King's Peace was established called the Peace of Callias, in which the representatives of Greece assembled in Sparta. The main focus of the Peace of Callias was to ensure to autonomy of all the Greek city-states with the exceptions of the Peloponnesian League and the Athenian League. When Thebes sought the recognition of their Boeotian League King Agesilaus refused them and the Thebans withdrew from the pact.

This led to the Spartan King Cleombrotus' invasion of Boeotia later in 71, which was followed by the Battle of Leuctra in which Thebes' new General, Epaminondas, was first able to display his tactical brilliance. After Thebes gained unexpected victory it was able to assert its authority over Greece much to the jealousy and suspicion of Athens and Pherae. In 70 Thebes then began its new campaign of dominance by expanding its empire into Thessaly, Macedon and interfering in the Peloponnese while Spartas' demise was already asserted.

In 6 B.C. Thebes responded to a plea for help from the Arcadians whom they had aided in their uprise against the Spartans and formation of the Arcadian Union. Athens ignored the cry for help, but the great Generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas responded by leading an army of Boeotians into Sparta. Epaminondas and Pelopidas then went on to free Sparta's enslaved helots and evade an combined Athenian and Corinthian Force on their journey home.

King Agesilaus' failure to transform the Spartan army into a more efficient battalion and his underestimation of Thebes caused the ruin of Sparta. Had Agesilaus recognised the need for change in battle tactics and formation, Sparta would have proved to be a more of a challenge to Thebes, but he was stubborn and unwilling to adhere to radically needed change. It was largely due to Lysander's fierce and brutal harmosts and garrisons that began the downfall of Sparta but it was Agesilaus' obduracy that sealed Sparta's fate.

In 67 Pelopidas met the Great King of Susa who had been called upon to aid the settlement of Greece turmoil. Pelopidas impressed the Great King who then showed Thebes much favour. The Great King ordered that Sparta give up Messenia and Athens was to beach her fleet. This only caused an uprising in anti-Theban sentiment so an alliance between Sparta and Athens was made in response. Thebes was not troubled by the combined forces of Athens and Sparta and went on to capture more territory in Thessaly.

Tragically in 64, Pelopidas led his army to victory in Pherae only to be slain. After his death, in the absence on Epaminondas a plot to overthrow the Theban democratic government was uncovered and without the opinion or assistance of their great leader, the Boeotian Assembly punished the entire village of Orchomenos by burning it to the ground an enslaving all of its occupants. This caused further political angst in Greece and even led to the disbandment of the Arcadian league, due to conflicting allegiances. The Arcadian cites of Megalopolis and Tegea remain sided with the Thebans while many other cities crossed over into the Spartan/Athenian alliance. In 6, to counter the danger of a Spartan and Arcadian alliance, Epaminondas led an army into the Peloponnese. During an attack upon Mantinea, Epaminondas was mortally wounded by a spear thrust and died after he ensured to Boeotians were winning.

Both Epaminondas and Pelopidas had been remarkable men. Together they had unified the forces in Boeotia and reorganised them into a revered army. They had planned their battles decisively and executed their plans determinedly and with conviction. After their deaths with the help of Persian gold, the power of Athens rose and the Thebans could not maintain their stronghold.

Athens began its climb to dominance by first re-establishing its naval stronghold over the Aegean but at the same time Macedonia began its rise under the leadership of Philip II, an intelligent and politically astute regent. In 60 he killed his young nephew and claimed the throne. He then went about building a uniquely professional army of citizens. So began the battle for superiority between the highly competitive Athens and Macedonia.

In Athens there were two great forces capable of winning Athens the power she so desperately sought, yet they were opposing forces (although both orators). Isocrates was a renowned teacher of oratory who made many speeches urging Athens to unite under the rule of Philip II and conquer Persia, while Demosthenes was a self-taught orator who was passionately patriotic and strongly believed that Philip was intending to destroy Athens.

Philip II realised that Athens was becoming more and more threatening under the persuasions of Demosthenes and led an army, which triumphed against Athens and her allies. Philip then set to work uniting Greece and asserting his influence by disbanding the Boeotian League and dissolving the Athenian Alliance.

In 6 B.C., whilst marching in a parade to show his triumph and fearlessness, Philip II was assassinated by Pausanias, who was then hunted down and killed. Philip's death did not see the decline of Macedonia (as Pelopidas and Epaminondas' deaths had done to Thebes). Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander, who was to become the most famous Grecian leader to unite the city-states under a unified government. He had taught his son so well that Alexander was ready to take over the leadership of Macedonia in the same exemplary fashion as Philip had done.

The leaders in fourth century Greece were the key to each city-states rise to, or fall from power. Had it not been for Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Philip II and Alexander the states of Thebes and Macedonia would never have built their empires to dominance; if King Agesilaus and Lysander had led Sparta more nobly and not been led so furiously by their hubris, Sparta may have retained her former brilliance; and if Athens had not been conflicted by the arguments of Demosthenes and Isocrates then Athens may have been able to defeat the Macedonians. With out the strength and courage of their leaders as warriors, orator and figureheads no city-states were capable of successfully pursuing a stronghold over Greece.

Please note that this sample paper on Fourth Century Greece is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Fourth Century Greece, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on Fourth Century Greece will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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