Gender

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Gender is the cultural dimension of sex, which is a biological material dimension.Like anything in culture, there is nothing true or permanent about gender except it is a historical, dynamic, meaning-making system.Since gender culturally establish correlates of sex, the attribution of gender are based not on an inspection of the sexual organs of individuals but on the judgements of their performance in relation to the culturally constructed gender categories.If a society establishes a structure on the basis of sex and gender, males and females will be granted and limited at the same time to certain privileges.In the Western culture, the social construction of sex and gender has placed social expectation on men.The masculine world is expected to be non-emotional, loud, messy, money makers, math and science oriented and most of all, exhibit assertive behaviours that demonstrate power and authority. As a result, these social expectations on men have valorized and yet subjugated them at the same time, leaving them in a position of an unrealistic reality of masculinity.In this exposition, I will analyze the role that popular culture plays in the early stages of men's lives, household, workforce, educational system and athletics.In the end, I will conclude that although masculinity has its benefits to the masculine world, it also subjugates them because it creates an unrealistic expectation on men and it encourages men to be violent and aggressive in their behaviour.

Much of the ideas about masculinity come from the media.What we see on television or in the movies, what we read in the newspaper or in magazines, what we see on billboards or hear on the radio, reinforces societal expectations of masculinity.The images in popular culture represent men as heroic and strong.It also portrays men as violent and angry, leaders, problem solvers, confident, successful, athletic, lacking sensitivity, and authoritative in the public sphere.As a result, these expectations advance the notion that a 'real man' is one that is demanding or aggressive in getting his desires and goals.Hence, a man is expected to be in his proper sphere of action which is the economic and political arena and as well, he is expected to be the head of the household, for which he must provide for his wife and children.Furthermore, society looks forward to the masculine world to be strong and not admit to any uncertainties because if they do, it is perceived as a sign of weakness.Despite the fact that men are at an advantage in society, they are subjugated and brought under control by these social expectations.

The media images of masculinity are present in a male's life as early as the first stages of infancy.When a baby boy is born, he is distinguished and characterized by his gender before he can take his first breath of life outside his mother's womb.As well, when a baby boy is brought home from the hospital, he is dressed in blue clothes because it helps friends, families, and even strangers to identify the sex of the child.In the article "The construction of Masculinity", Michael Kaufman stated that "masculinity is unconsciously rooted before the age of six, and then positively explodes at adolescence" (Kaufman, 115).With that in mind, men were socialized at a young age by their fathers, mothers, teaches, mentors, friends, and other role models such as television and movies that boys are to play with guns, planes, engage in 'contact' sports, be tough if they get hurt and independent.As a result of ideas, attitudes, behaviours and beliefs that men learnt in their childhood and adolescence, they matured believing that they are to behave in a powerful, active masculine manner (Kaufman, 10).

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Consequently, the social construction of masculinity by the media and the reinforcement of their gender roles by parents valorize men to have an advantage over women in our society as the dominant sex.In society, men dominate institutions such as the church, family, and law.This domination by men has created a patriarchal society, in which it has oppressed and exploited women at every level of reality. Despite the fact that conflict has escalated between male and female, society believes that it is natural for a man to have power, aggression, and authority (Kaufman 110).Furthermore, since men are depicted as the logical thinker and discipliner, this logical framework has served to valorize men in the role of a dictator and control agent.In order for a man to continue to be logical in his life, he has been socialized into rejecting emotions and feelings from the external environment.This is a formula that men must follow in order to be separated mentally and emotionally from all things.With that in mind, men must abstract their world into something that seems disconnected from themselves or anyone else.The purpose of this is to dissect each segment of a problem and reformulate it into a disciplined logical order so it can be used to construct a value system and perform tasks for men.

Nevertheless, men have been valorized into the role as a provider. Society expects men to provide food, shelter, and care to his wife and children. This role valorizes men because it gives them an advantage in the home and the public sphere. Since men are to be the provider, they are encouraged to go out and find work and the women are advised to stay home and take care of the children.As well, men have control in the household because they are expected to be a good father that discipline and set down rules for his home.Since men maintain a patriarchal role in the family, it valorizes them as the driving force that ensures his children perform their responsibilities as he provides love and guidance to them. Hence, the dominant role assumed by men creates a pattern for male activities to be valued higher than female activities and as a result, popular culture images of masculinity becomes extremely difficult to overcome.

Men are also valorized in the workforce because they have tremendous power in the public sphere. As in all pursuits, men see business and other professions as a competition, a battle for dominance.They use their occupation as a means to engage in a competition against other men and female, in order to maintain their high wages. Men are socially responsible because they arrange their combative competition in business that organizes as a limited civil and/or private economic competition.As a result of the masculine world pursuit of power and dominance, men have been socialized into having the responsibility to temper their combative urges in the public economy and be dictators in the political arena.Since men have higher value in society, they enjoy high prestige jobs and job titles.This power and dominance that men have in the workforce has created a gender and wage gap between the sexes.Women who enter the public sphere are forced to compete with men for wages and prestige jobs and since they do not hold the same power and authority as men, they earn significantly less, even if they are more qualified that the opposite sex.

Nonetheless, men valorize the educational system.At university, males and females are channeled into different fields.For example, men are encouraged into the math and science field.In the article "Patriarchy, Scientists, and Nuclear Warriors", Brian Easlea stated that science especially Physics is a "'hard', intellectually difficult subject as opposed to 'soft' ones, such as English or history" (Easlea, 148).Easlea believes that there is a hard-soft spectrum within sciences, in which physics is the hardest, chemistry is in the middle, and biology is at the soft end (Easlea, 148).Men valorize the educational system because science and math are perceived as male orientated subjects since men can reason and intellectually solve problems as oppose to females. As a result, the "aspects of the masculinity of physics is that the men who inhabit this scientific worldparticularly those who are successful in itbehave in culturally masculine ways" (Easlea, 147).Easlea confirms that like "all other hierarchical male-dominated activities, getting to the invariably entails aggressive, competitive behavior" (Easlea, 147).However, if it was not for this institutionalized and socially competitive aggressive behavior, men would not be ranked higher in academics.On that account, men have higher value in the educational system because the educational system reinforces gender stereotypes and sex roles and teachers tend to set assignments which further reinforce masculine behavior.With that in mind, schools socialize males and females into different orientation of life.As a consequence, males and females enter university with gender-linked aspirations and it is these, rather than presumed innate characteristics that allow men to have dominance and authority in society.

The social construction of masculinity also valorizes men in ways of athletics.Since men at an early age are encouraged to participate in sports like football or hockey, they grow up into adulthood with athletic prowess.And since they watch their fathers dote and fawn over a game on television, men are instilled at a young age with the desire to excel physically.As a result, sports valorize men because it teaches them in their childhood to be strong, aggressive and competitive. Through sports, men learn what it means to be masculine and if they show signs of femininity, they are taunted with phrases such as "Don't be a sissy" or "Only girls do that". Furthermore, the valorizing of sports socializes men into having tones, muscular bodies.Health and fitness becomes a concern for men because having a toned and muscular body is seen and depicted in society as the ideal (Bordo, 6).In the article "Reading the slender body", Susan Bordo stated that 'muscles have chiefly symbolized and continue to symbolize power as physical strength" (Bordo, 6).As a result of this ideal male body, men who stay fit through sports and exercise gets their masculinity shaped and molded.

However, although men may have all the power in society, masculinity can be "terrifying fragile because it does not really exist in the sense we are led to think it exists" (Kaufman, 115). Kaufman stated that "masculinity exists as ideology; it exists as scripted behavior; it exists within 'gendered' relationship" (Kaufman, 115).With that in mind, men in society are subjugated by the social construction of masculinity.The standards set out for men have put them in a straightjacket that leads to anger, despair, and often violence.Due to the aggressive and dominating behavior of men, Michael Kaufman believes that 'violence is one aspect of our society's domination by men that, in outcome, if not always in design reinforce that domination" (Kaufman, 10). He also affirmed that the act of violence in the individual man is "acting out relations of sexual power; it is the violence of a societya hierarchical, authoritarian, sexiest, class-divided, militarist, racist, impersonal, crazy society" (Kaufman, 10).

Despite the fact that there is great social prestige with masculinity, many men do not match it or desire to.As a result, men feel subjugated because masculinity has put their traditional gender at risk since it is thought to lead to violence.Men rather than women are central to the symbolism of violence in mass media, sports, and political rhetoric.Since men have an economic advantage over women, they have been given the privilege to defend, which they may defend in violence or may make women vulnerable to violence.It should come as no surprise that men reinforce their domination through violence because at an early age, men were encouraged by popular culture to play with weapons and learn military skills.As well, violent behavior expressed from television and advertising also enforces violence because the images from advertising often use violence towards women.This violence against women is often pushed to the point of encouragement of rape (Kaufman, 116). Sexual harassment or rape occurs when a man feel that his power and status is threatened, for he is angered when he cannot achieve the entitlements of his gender.Therefore, although men rule and fashion society, the reactions to violence only "confirms the negative self-image and the feeling of powerlessness of the fragility, artificiality, and precariousness of masculinity" (Kaufman, 117).

In addition, the social expectation of masculinity also subjugated men because men are not allowed to express their emotion only through anger.If a man does not show his emotions, his sensitive side, he is berated for being detached from the essence of what society really constitutes a human being.If he displays his emotions, he is criticized for being "unmasculine", whereas emotional behavior in girls tends to be expected and accepted.However, if a male decides to expose his emotions, he is labeled as a "sissy" and viewed as not equal to other men who demonstrate more valor and bravery. Hence, to show emotions is a sign of weakness and society view this as abnormal or inferior for men.Furthermore, society links a sensitive man to homosexuality.If a man is overly sensitive or fragile, he is perceived as a "queer", who is at odd with the "normal, the legitimate, the dominant" definition of masculinity (Halperin, 144).In the film "Orlando", Orlando shows his feminine side when he shows compassion and love for his enemy.He forgets the cult of chivalry, in which he should have been honorable, courageous and bold since these are noble qualities associated with manliness. It is important to realize that men are emotional and they do cry.When a man suffers a tragedy or is going through difficult problems emotionally, the thing that he needs to do is to step back from them emotionally, to distance himself from his own emotions in order to gain an objective rational perspective on his emotions.Despite the fact that men may express their sensitive side, that does not mean that they are homosexual or less than a man.

In conclusion, the social expectation of masculinity demands aggression in males and promotes a hierarchy, competition, and dominance in society.Although masculinity has its benefits to the masculine world, it subjugates them because it creates an unrealistic expectation on men and it encourages men to be violent and aggressive in their behaviour.Therefore, it is important to change the oppressive reality of patriarchal, authoritarian societies because the changes in these societies will serve as a means to discharge the oppressive and violet behaviour men possess.

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Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil

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Latin America today has many inequalities in its social and racial classes.In many Latin American countries, the most highly populated areas are in the slums of the major cities.Mexico City, Sao Paolo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, all four of these cities have population masses near the outskirts of the city limits.These areas are mostly lower-class, sometimes below poverty-level people who have no other means of shelter over their heads except for some cardboard boxes, and if they're lucky, some plywood or cement blocks. Why are there so many people in these areas?The answer is mass urbanization, which has taken Brazil, among other Latin American countries, to a new level of poverty among the dwellers of these urban areas.These people face extreme racial and social challenges everyday, and the end of these inequalities and challenges does not appear to be coming anytime soon.

In Brazil, like the rest of Latin America, there are many social challenges and inequalities.Very little of the population has most of the money, and the majority are left to live just above, or even below poverty level.Population rises in Brazil since 160 have become enormous, and the majority of the children being born in this period have been born into lower-class families.Because of this, Brazil now has one of the worst population and social class inequalities in the world.However, the challenges that face Brazil today are not solely caused by social class.Some of these problems are also caused by racial discrimination, racial stereotypes, and miscedination, or the mixing of racial groups.Now, more than ever, Brazil must take a step forward to help those people who have been left behind because of their racial lineage, their family's social history, and even their ability earn a minimum-wage level income.

Income distribution in Brazil is very lopsided.Most of the population, about 6%, earns less than five times the minimum wage per month, including .5% who live with no income whatsoever .In Brazil, the minimum wage level is considered to be $75 per month .This is equivalent to about forty cents per hour, for a forty-hour workweek.In this sense, three in five people in Brazil live on about 75 dollars or less per month.To put this in perspective, a minimum wage earner in the United States earns approximately 885 dollars per month .In addition to this, about 85% of the population in Brazil earn less than ten times the minimum wage level per month .This leaves 15% of the 170 million Brazilians who earn more than ten times the minimum monthly wage.This 15% is considered the upper class, where as the middle class is made up of about 18% of the population, leaving an astonishing 67% of Brazilians in the lower class .Adding to this inequality is the fact that the percentage share of income by group has become further and further from being even.In 160, the poorest 50% of the population earned only 17% of the income, while the richest 10% earned .6% of the income.Even more unequal is that the richest 1% of the population in 160 earned 1.1% of the income .These numbers have not improved since then.In fact, by 170, the richest 1% earned 14% of the income, and the poorest 50% earned only one percent more at 15%.By 180, the richest 1% was earning 4% more than the poorest 50% .These trends continued through the 180s and 10s.In 16, it was determined that the ratio of people represented by the top 0% of income earners to the lowest 0% of the income earners was 5.5 in Brazil.Also by 16, the top ten percent of income earners earned almost half of the national income of Brazil (47.6%) .This inequality of income distribution in Brazil shows why there is such a large lower class, and such a small percentage of Brazilians who live in the upper class.

The reason for such an unequal distribution of income in Brazil"points to deeper historical causes than these recent [181-15] decades, including a grossly uneven distribution of land ownership" .In fact, most of the people in Brazil do not own much land.Vast majorities of the population, those in the lower class, own nothing more than the shelter they have over their heads.In most cases, the "favelas" or slums on the outskirts of the larger cities hold most of the population.In the whole of Latin America, 7% of the populations live in urban areas .It is no different in Brazil.In fact, almost 80% of Brazilians live in urban areas .These areas are mostly cities of 500,000 or more, and the poorest of the people in each city live towards the outskirts of the city limits.These areas are densely populated, mostly filled with the lower class and extremely poor.Custom Essays on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil

The reason that so many of the poor move into the same areas, is because that is where they might be able to find work.The poor in Brazil "make their homes, however precariously, close in [to the city], because that is where they find work, shops, and a modicum of services" .These neighborhoods have become so poor that now Brazil is trying to come up with ways in which they can help clean up these "favelas".These are the areas that have the least amount of schooling, the lowest possible incomes and in some cases no income.The houses in these slums are sometimes made out of cardboard, sometimes wood, and sometimes cement blocks.The slums have the highest crime rates, and they are not looking any better for the future than they are now.

The racial breakdown in Brazil is also very unequal.Out of approximately 170 million people living in Brazil, a majority, 54%, is considered, and considers themselves white.5.4% are considered black, and .% are "pardos" some kind of mixture between races.Less than one percent of the population is of Native Brazilian Indian or Asian descent .This breakdown in race is mostly the cause of white Europeans conquering Braziland then migrating to Brazil in later years, especially after World War II.However, these numbers may be misconstrued, because social class and income also determine what color Brazilians consider themselves to be.For example, "in Brazil, very dark-skinned persons who are also poor are likely to be thought of-and to classify themselves-as black, but high-status persons of the same skin tone are more likely to be thought of-and to classify themselves-as "pardo" or some other term closer to the white end of the color continuum" .This method of thinking shows that skin color and appearance are not the only factors in social rank, or even racial class.

The average household in Brazil has .4 people in it.For the 67% of Brazilians living in the lower class, this means an average of almost two people live in each room of a house.While most (5%) of Brazil now has electricity, only 76% of the population has safe water to drink, and only 5% have plumbing in their home .However, these numbers only show the whole of Brazil.Studies have now shown that the color of your skin in Brazil can mean certain advantages or disadvantages, depending on what skin color a person has or is considered to have.Among whites in Brazil, 8% have safe water, and 6% have plumbing.Among blacks and "pardos", only 67% have safe drinking water, and 40% have plumbing .This shows that the color, or perceived color, of one's skin in Brazil has an effect on what kind of living conditions one has.With this in mind, being white in Brazil gives one the best chance at a long, successful, and healthy life in Brazil.There are also some other areas in which whites in Brazil have a distinct advantage over blacks and "pardos".These areas include income, life expectancy, and education.

The first thing that all Brazilians, regardless of skin color and social class, must face is living past the age of five years old.While the life expectancy in Brazil is now up to 68.4 years, there is still a .5% infant mortality rate, and a 6% under 5-years old mortality rate .However, whites are expected to live an average of seven years longer than blacks or "pardos".This is mostly because the whites in Brazil, in general, have better jobs, are in a higher social class, and have more education and education possibilities.Whites that are born into higher income class families also have an even longer life expectancy than blacks and "pardos" who are born into a higher income class family.While the life expectancy increases according to the income level of the home in which they are born into for blacks, whites, and "pardos"; it is a significantly larger increase in white families than in black or "pardo" families .

The color of one's skin in Brazil also has an influence on the level of education a child will receive, and the possibilities for a child to even go to school.While only 5.5% of Brazilians are still enrolled in school at the age of sixteen, 56% of white children are enrolled at 16, but only % of black and "pardo" children of the same age are enrolled in school .An even more significant inequality among racial classes in Brazil is that the average white child in Brazil receives overmore years of enrollment in a school than blacks and "pardos" .Although 5% of Brazilian children between the ages of seven and fourteen are enrolled in school, there is still a 1% illiteracy rate among Brazilians.This shows that whites in Brazil have a distinct advantage in education and chances for education than blacks and "pardos" in Brazil.

While racial and social classes determine where a person in Brazil might live, their have been some changes in Brazil, in an attempt to make living conditions for the 67% of the population in the lower class a little bit better.In recent years, their have been some tries at land reform, that is, taking large quantities of unused or dormant land from the owners and making it available to the poor at premium prices.One of the most successful attempts at land reform has been in Curitiba, a city of 1.4 million people located in southern Brazil.They implemented a plan for the city to build housing plots for the people of the lower classes and slums.After this, the city sold the plots to the poor at very low mortgage rates, and let the people build the rest of their house in any way they could.The city would add sewage and electricity, and the homeowner was responsible for the rest.This worked very well because the people were able to use the electricity and sewage to their own advantage and begin to build their house on their own terms.Another land reform plan that was not as successful was the land reform project in Sao Paolo.In this reform, the people of the poor areas were moved into a barracks, while the state rebuilds their homes in the same location and sells them at low interest mortgage rates.This was not as successful because the poor did not have the money to pay for even these simple homes, even at the low rate.

This need for land reform has been brought on Brazil because of the mass migration to the larger cities of Brazil that has been occurring since 160.Since that time, the urban population in Brazil has increased from 44.7 million to 78.4 million in 11 .For example, the population of Sao Paulo, Brazil and Latin America's largest city has increased from only .8 million in 160 to over 16 million today.The same is true for Rio de Janeiro, where the population in 160 was .4 million.Today the city has over 10 million .While these two cities are among the extreme cases of urban migration, in total, 0 million people in Brazil have moved from rural areas to urban areas since 170 .These people have moved to the city to try and gain a better life for themselves and their children, knowing that they might not be able to find jobs or a place to live.One positive thing about the urbanization movement is that the education that urban dwellers receive is somewhat better than those in the rural areas can get.In 11, 86% of Brazilians living in urban areas were literate, but only 60% of those in rural areas could read and write , giving yet another reason for Brazilians to move from rural areas to urban areas.

At the same time, these mass movements into the urban areas are the source of the overpopulation in Brazilian and Latin American cities.As more and more people move into these cities, there becomes less and less space to put them.Enter the slums.Most of these areas have houses that are so small, they look like jail cells.They are built extremely close to each other, and in a lot of cases, they were built on land that did not belong to the builders.Another problem that has developed because of this mass migration is that of finding jobs for all of the people that are constantly moving into the cities.Without the jobs to support all of the people that are moving into their cities, the Brazilian economy has seen it's per capita income suffer.The average income per month in Brazil is only $17 .This includes all classes, and all income earners, whether minimum wage level or the highest income earners in the country.This further shows that the distribution of income is not even.When over 0% of Brazilians earn less than the national average per month, a great inequality in income distribution is obvious.

These social and racial challenges that face Brazil have taken their toll on the Brazilian social classes.The perception of one's color in Brazil does not necessarily tell what skin color a person has, or even what racial background a person might have.There is mass inequality in income distribution, in schooling and chances for an education, and in life expectancy among those of different colors and different social classes.Brazil certainly has many problems ahead of them, but the important thing is how they deal with these problems in the future.

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Please note that this sample paper on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The U-2 Spy Plane

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Many Americans regard the Cold War as a time when tensions ran high and war seemed inevitable; when the entire world was torn between two superpowers. What the common citizen did not know, however, was just how real the war was. There was a secret war being fought between America and the Soviet Union at the time and this took the form of arms buildup, the Space Race, and most notably, espionage. One important aspect of the constant spy game between the two countries was the introduction of the American's U- high altitude spy plane. This innovation gave the Americans a distinct advantage over the Communist Russians, but the project was kept secret from the American people. In fact, the American public only became aware of the existence of the U- after one had been shot down during a secret espionage mission over the Soviet Union.The crises stirred up a great amount of controversy and some of the American people and all of Russian Ambassadors felt that it was an unjustifiable intrusion into the Soviet Union's territory. However, because of the technological advances made and the important information discovered as a result of the U-'s missions, its use was justifiable in the cold war and it was, in fact, a very important tool for the American government, despite its controversy.

"The U- was, indeed one of the CIA's greatest intelligence achievements. In fact, it may be one of the greatest achievements of any intelligence service of any nation." ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). This quote, spoken by George Tenet, former director of the CIA, summarizes what the U- accomplished. However, this only came about through months of hard work and research. President Dwight Eisenhower approved the U- project in 154. The project was proposed as a means of gaining information on

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the growing Soviet threat ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). As a budget, the U- project was granted $5 million to build 0 planes (resulting to just over $1 million per plane) (Sullivan ). The concept of a high altitude spy plane was first introduced at the end of WWII and was finally given a means with which to become reality (Sullivan 1). So, in December of 154, the direction of the project was granted to Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and work on the plane began at the Lockheed "Skunk Works" (Sullivan 1). In order to keep its construction secret from the American public and from possible Soviet spies, the U- was designed under the guise of being a utility plane, hence the 'U' prefix ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" 1). Custom Essays on The U-2 Spy Plane

The U- spy plane would be the most expensive project undertaken by the CIA at that time. A large part of the expense was the fact that the U- would use only the latest photographical and surveillance technology and equipment. Not only that, but it also included the latest fuel and engine advances as well ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). The camera that was used by the spy plane to take pictures from 70,000 feet in the air was designed by Edward Land and cost an estimated $57,000 to develop alone (Sullivan, 1). Because the spy plane was expected to complete the flight over the Soviet Union with no stops or refueling times (a total range of about 6,50 miles, it would need to be both super light, and extremely fuel efficient ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" ). Not only that, but the plane was planned and designed to fly at an unprecedented 70,000 feet in order to stay out of reach of the Soviets' anti air guns and planes (Pocock 4). In order to meet the extremely lightweight requirements that would be necessary to obtain such a high altitude and distance many staples of an airplane were not included in the design of the U-.

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Among the list of things that the U- did not come equipped with was an ejector seat for the pilot (Kent 56). It is thought by some circles that there was a dual-reason behind the choice to not have a means of ejection for the pilot. Yes it would conserve weight on the aircraft and, in turn, fuel, but it has been suggested that the American government had an ulterior motive in this matter. If there were no ejector seats, then there would be no surviving pilot if the U- were to crash. It was feared that if a live U- pilot was captured by the Russians then he would be tortured without mercy and forced to give up technological secrets of the United States (Pedlow ). American officials and President Eisenhower didn't want to take this risk so the ejector seat was not included in the plane. The developers of the plane also promised that no pilot of a U- spy plane would be captured (Pedlow 6).

In other efforts to save weight on the plane, it was constructed with extremely long, lightweight wings. They were also very fragile and would crumple like paper under any substantial impact. The tail was held on by only three steel bolts, making it vulnerable to breakage as well (Pocock 47). With the "long, high aspect ratio wings", the U- was given some of the traits of a glider to give it a longer range and carry as meager of an amount of fuel as possible ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" 4). With an extremely lightweight body and no counter-measures, the U- relied solely upon its capability to fly above other planes, specifically Russian MiGs, to keep it safe ("A Rev. in Intelligence" ). After plans were complete the first U- took 88 days to build and made its first flight in August of 155 (Sullivan 1).

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After development of the spy plane was completed, all that was left for the American government was actually using it, and the U- became an effective tool for America such that it was indeed justifiable in its covert operation. The U-'s mission statement was to analyze the extent of the Soviet Union ballistic missile threat. In short, photograph any Soviet arms factories and also any completed missiles that were present on the ground ("A Rev. in Intelligence" ). To this effect, the U- missions began on July 4, 156, launching from Wiesbaden Air Base in Western Germany (Orlov ). The first flight was a success. It passed over the entire landmass of the Soviet Union taking substantial amounts of pictures of the Russian's weapons factories and actual military strength (Orlov ). However, something happened that the Americans did not expect. The U- was detected by Russian radar. It was thought that the plane flew so high and was so small that it would be overlooked by the Russian military. However, the Soviet Union did in fact know, that they were being spied on and protested vehemently against the intrusion of their airspace (Kent 18). That is all they could do though, since they had no available counter-measures that could shoot down planes that flew so high. They were left to protest through diplomatic channels to the American government, who was not about to relinquish their new powerful tool of surveillance. During the ten days after July 4, 156, the U-'s made five incursions into USSR airspace and obtained hundreds of photographs of Russian airfields and shipyards. The pictures came as a relief to American officials as it was revealed that the amount of strategic bombers and actual ballistic missiles the Soviets controlled was far less then the estimated number and also far less then the amount the Americans controlled. While this eased the fears of the American

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government, it did nothing to quell the worries of the American public, who were unaware of the surveillance flights into the Soviet Union (Orlov ).

Though the amount of strategic airplanes and ballistic missiles was less then the anticipated amount, the number of nuclear submarines was much larger. It appeared that the Russian military had been concentrating its money in submarine research and construction, perhaps for use against the continental United States (Pocock 5).

The U- flights were a great success and their pictures provided a useful tool for the American government. Though the American public never knew about them, they did a great deal to ensure American safety and allowed officials to make informed decisions concerning the Soviets. Instead of rushing to war on "assumptions" that the Soviets had a larger military, the Americans could instead, allow themselves a measure of relaxation, for they were in fact, not in as significant a danger as they had originally perceived. The U- flights guaranteed the safety of the American people and for that reason they were justified for use in the Cold War. The flights may have violated Russian airspace but it was all in an effort to become informed of their enemies capabilities and be able to better protect the peace and freedom that Americans lived under.

While the Soviets could not militarily respond to the U- planes' intrusion of their airspace, that did not stop them from establishing a new branch of the military in early 160. Called the Strategic Missile Forces, its specific mission was to develop a new generation of anti aircraft weaponry particularly with the idea of countering the U- (Orlov 5). Soviets began deploying an increasing amount of strategic missiles, building new SAM (surface-to-air missiles) sites, and equipping their forces with advanced radar,

Fagan 6

all in an effort to combat the U- intrusions (Orlov 4). However, for many years these efforts proved to be only a mild deterrent to scheduled U- flyovers. Diplomacy remained the Soviets only option. Their negotiations and protests gained a brief pause in the flights in 156, but they resumed again in 157 (Orlov 5).

In response to the Americans' domination of the sky, the Soviets turned to their space program. They made fantastic breakthroughs in the fields of rocketry and space travel, hoping to use this advantage as a lever to help put a stop to U- flyovers. In fact, it was believed by the Americans that the Soviets' ultimate goal was to put a nuclear device into space capable of attacking the United States with them being unable to counter it (Orlov 4).

Despite the edge that the Americans had held over the Soviets for so long concerning the U- missions, that gap began to lessen with time. Soviets eventually developed an anti-air missile that was capable of tracking aircraft in high altitudes (Orlov 6). This upgrading of Soviet weaponry made U- flights increasingly risky. There were reports from pilots of missiles fired from the ground coming much closer to the planes then previously had been thought possible (Orlov 7). There were even reports of a spy in the U- program who was handing over the secrets of the aircraft to the Russians. It seemed that the communist nation may soon develop their own version of the U- spy plane, possibly one with offensive weapons to counter the Americans' (Kent ).

The tensions between America and the Soviet Union continued to grow until finally it was decided that a summit must be held to avoid war. The leaders of the countries prepared to meet in Paris to discuss a possible cut down on the stockpile of

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armaments in both countries (Pocock ). Because of the sensitivity of this summit and the fact that the frail negotiations to hold it could collapse at any time, the U- flights were suspended. The last one was scheduled to fly on May 1st by a veteran pilot, Francis Gary Powers (Sullivan ).

Powers flight was immediately detected upon entrance to Soviet airspace. Unbeknownst to him was the fact that the Soviets had been sucessfully testing a new type of SAM missile that was capable of homing in on aircraft at high altitudes (Orlov 5). A group of MiG's shadowed Power's entire flight in Soviet airspace and radioed his position to Russian military command (Sullivan ). Powers was shot down by an anti-aircraft missle over Sverdlosk. He crashlanded and survived unscathed (Sullivan ). Not only was Powers unable to activate the self-destruct charges that would destroy his aircraft to prevent the technology from falling into Soviet hands but he also did not ingest his cyanide pill to commit suicide (Sullivan 4). As expected, Powers was captured by the KGB and held in Moscow where it was "uncertain" what information the Russians extracted from him; the American government assumed that Powers had been killed on impact and fed a cover story to the American public of an "accidental crash" in northern Russia (Pocock 67). The peace summit was to continue as planned. However, during the peace talks themselves, the Soviet Union expressed their anger at having their airspace violated by U- spy planes. The American government denied this claim and it was then that the Russians brought Powers into the summit, alive and well. This, of course, was a humiliating experience for America and the peace talks collapsed (Pocock 71). Not only

Fagan 8

that, but President Eisenhower lost creditability with the American people because of the fact that he had denied the U- project existed and he was now shown to be lying.

Despite the dire ramifications that the Powers episode had on the peace talks between the USSR and America, it cannot be refuted that without the U- spy plane a war could have easily occurred because America did not know of Russia's weapon capability. The U- was an important tool in this aspect because it allowed the Americans to acquire photographical evidence of Russia's weapon sites. Despite the controversey that arose from the use of the spy plane, it was in fact justifiable in its use in order to protect America from getting involved in a costly feud with the Soviet Union during the Cold War Era.

Works Cited

"A Revolution in Intelligence." CIA Press Releases and Statements. 8 Sept. 18. http

//www.odci.gov/cia/public_affairs/press_releases/archives/18/pro088.html

(17 Nov. 00).

Halberstam, David. The Fifties Fawcett Columbine, 1.

Kent, Sherman. "The Cuban Missile Crisis of 16Presenting the Photographic Evidence

Abroad." Center for the Study of Intelligence. http//www.odci.gov/csi/books/

Shermankent/10cuban.html (17 Nov. 00).

Kent, Sherman. "The Summit Conference of 160An Intelligence Officer's View."

Center for the Study of Intelligence. http//www.odci.gov/csi/books/shermankent

/8summit.html (17 Nov. 00).

Orlov, Alexander. "The U- ProgramA Russian Officer Remembers". A "Hot Front in

The Cold War. http//www.cia.gov/csi/studies/winter8-/art0.html (Nov. 18, 00).

Pedlow, George W., and Donald E. Welzenbach. The CIA and the U- Program. History

Staff Center for the Study of Intelligence, 184.

Pocock, Chris. Dragon Lady The History of the U- Spy Plane. New York Motorbooks

International, 18.

Powers, Francis Gary. Operation OverflightA Memoir of the U- Incident. New York

Brasseys, Inc., 170.

United States. Dept. of State. Office of the Historian. "The U- Airplane Incident".

Washington 160. http//www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc_u/fraus_x1_147.htm (17 Nov. 00).

Sanders, William. The "Skunk" Project. New YorkHolst Inc, 174.

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John donne

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John Donne uses poetry to explore his own identity, express his feelings, and most of all, he uses it to deal with the personal experiences occurring in his life. Donnes poetry is a confrontation or struggle to find a place in this world, or rather, a role to play in a society from which he often finds himself detached or withdrawn. This essay will discuss Donnes states of mind, his views on love, women, religion, his relationship with God; and finally how the use of poetic form plays a part in his exploration for an identity and salvation.

The speaker in Donnes poetry is a theatrical character, constantly in different situations, and using different roles to suit the action. He can take on the role of the womanizer, as in The Indifferent, or the faithful lover from Lovers Infiniteness, but the speaker in each of these poems is always John Donne himself. Each poem contains a strong sense of Donnes own self-interest. According to Professor J. Crofts, Donne

Throughout his life... was a man self-haunted, unable to escape from his own drama, unable to find any window that would not give him back the image of himself. Even the mistress of his most passionate love-verses, who must (one supposes) have been a real person, remains for him a mere abstraction of sex a thing given. He does not see her --does not apparently want to see her; for it is not of her that he writes, but of his relation to her; not of love, but of himself loving.

In Elegy XIX [To His Mistress Going to Bed], we are confronted with one of Donnes personalities. The poem begins abruptly Come, Madam, come! All rest my powers defy;/ Until I labour, I in l abour lie. The reader is immediately thrust into the middle of a private scene in which Donne attempts to convince his lover to undress and come to bed. There is only one speaker in this poem, Donne, we do not hear the voice or a description of the feelings of another person, but she is always present. If Samuel Johnson was correct when he made the statement that the metaphysical poets were men of learning, and to show their learning was their whole endeavour..., then the woman Donne is trying to convince is simply there so he can create this poem. Donne uses wit as his poetic device, wit being defined as an elaborate parallel between two dissimilar images or situations, namely the conceit. Donne does not give the woman a voice, and he most likely does not see her as human but as a means to create a role for himself. He describes her body and her undressing in metaphors

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Off with that girdle, like Heavens zone glittering,

But far fairer would encompassing.

Unpin that spangled breastplate which you wear,

That th eyes of busy fools may be stopped there.

Unlace yourself, for that harmonious chime

Tells me from you that it is now bedtime.

Off with that happy busk, which I envy,

That still can be, and still can stand so nigh.

Your gown going off, such beauteous state reveals

As when from flowry meads th hills shadows steals.

Off with that wiry coronet, and show

The hairy diadem which on you doth grow. [lines -16]

With these lines Donne is the poet first, using different poetic strategies to convince his lover, then he is a triumphant explorer

O my America, my new found land!

My kingdom, safeliest when one man manned,

My mine of precious stones, my empery,

How blest I am in this discovering thee! [lines 7-0]

Finally Donne is naked and vulnerable, involved in a battle of the sexes, struggling to get the woman undressed. Donne cannot control how quickly she undresses, or whether she will undress at all. He deals with this problem through his use of wit. Elegy XIX is an exercise for Donne, he explores various types of metaphors, and plays with the Petrarchan conceit, a popular poetic genre of his day. The main role Donne explores in Elegy XIX is that of the poet, and he enjoys this process because no matter what the outcome, Donne is still happy with the situation because he can write a poem describing various ways in which he can convince his lover to do what he wants.

Donnes personality changed with every new experience. His poetry reflects these changing roles by taking on a different form each time. Perhaps Elegy XIX can be seen as a time in Donnes life when he wanted to establish himself as a poet in his own mind, but there certainly was a significant event in Donnes life that changed his attitude toward women and himself. Elegy XIX shows us a person who thinks only of his own gratification, the woman is there so he can invent. In The Good Morrow Donne shows another side of himself, a man in love and finding his own identity inside another person, along with a new and fully developed style. There is still that egocentric attitude and the use of extended metaphors, but also an element of rebirth.

I wonder, by my troth, what thou and I

Did till we loved? were we not weaned till then,

But sucked on country pleasures, childishly?

Or snorted we in seven sleepers den?

Twas so; but this, all pleasures fancies be.

If ever any beauty I did see,

Which I desired, and got, twas but a dream of thee.

And now good-morrow to our waking souls,

Which watch not one another out of fear;

For love all love of other sights controls,

And makes one little room an everywhere. [lines 1-11]

These lines suggest that his past attitudes, past mistresses were somehow outside himself, or merely dreams of the woman he is now in love with. The lovers are separate worlds, they maintain their own identities, but at the same time they are mixed together forming a unit.

Let us posses one world; each hath one, and is one.

My face in thine, thine in mine appears,

And true plain hearts do in fact rest;

Where can we find two better hemispheres

Without sharp north, without declining west?

Whatever dies was not mixed equally;

If our two loves be one, or thou and I

Love so alike that none do slacken, none can die. [lines 14-1]

The lovers are cut off from the outside, they live in their own world. Donne sees himself in the reflection of his lovers eyes, obtaining an identity through her. He ceased to exist before he woke up in love with this woman.

Time disapproves of their love and Donne later finds his unit disturbed by the outside world. In The Sun Rising, the sun intrudes and reminds him that it is not just he and his lover that exist

Busy old fool, unruly sun,

Why dost thou thus

Through windows and through curtains call on us?

Must to thy motions lovers seasons run?

Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide

Late school boys and sour prentices,

Go tell court-huntsmen that the king will ride,

Call country ants to harvest offices;

Love, all alike, no season knows, nor clime,

Nor hours, days, months, which are rags of time. [lines 1-10]

This poem can be seen as a sort of dramatic monologue, a complaint to the sun. The sun reminds Donne of the outside world, one that he is aware of, but wants no part in. He would rather exist outside of time, alone with his love inside the unit they form. The couples hands are firmly cemented, their eye beams twisted together to become one, as in The Ecstasy. In The Sun Rising Donne contrasts his relationship to the sun, the sun is aged and has worldly things to do, while Donne and his lover appear timeless, immortal, able to disregard the sun with a wink of an eye. Eventually the couple contain the sun and the world. The poet no longer contrasts his unit with the sun, because the lovers become the world

She is all states, and all princes I;

Nothing else is.

Princes do but play us; compared to this,

All honours mimic, all wealth alchemy.

Thou, sun, art half as happy as we,

In that the worlds contracted thus;

Thine age asks ease, and since thy duties be

To warm the world, thats done in warming us.

Shine here to us, and thou art everywhere;

This bed thy centre is, these walls thy sphere. [lines 1-0]

Perhaps the most dramatic of Donnes poems is The Canonization. This poem expresses Donnes anger at the criticism of others and their opinions about how he chooses to live his life. The poem begins as a plea to be left alone, a demand for the people bothering him to mind their own business

For Gods sake hold your tongue, and let me love;

Or chide my palsy, or my gout,

My five grey hairs, or ruined fortune flout;

With wealth your state, your mind with arts improve,

Take you a course, get you a place,

Observe his Honour, or his Grace,

Or the kings real, or his stamped face

Contemplate; what you will, approve,

So you will let me love. [lines 1-]

Donne is defending his choices, he chooses to remain set off from the outside world, alone in a relationship that hurts no one save for their lack of understanding The phoenix riddle hath more wit/ By us; we two being one, are it. This poem was written most likely after his elopement with Ann More and the stress and disapprovement that went with his marriage. The beginning of the poem brings the reader into a debate between Donne and his friend, and then he turns inward and examines his love, the opponent is lost, and we get Donnes feelings on the matter of love

We can die by it, if not live by love,

And if unfit for tombs and hearse

Our legend be, it will be fit for verse;

And if no piece of chronicle we prove,

Well build in sonnets pretty rooms;

As well a well-wrought urn becomes

The greatest ashes, as half-acre tombs,

And by these hymns all shall approve

Us canonized for love... [lines 8-6]

Their love will become a legend inscribed on their tomb stones, immortalized in verse, building shelter through the poets words. He turns his love into the written Word, a law to live by, while others take to their courtly duties.

John Donnes Holy Sonnets reveal his relationship with God, his thoughts on religion, and his hope for salvation. Leaving the Catholic Church left Donne alone, worried about his after-life, almost helpless. For a while Donne survived with his various lovers and later his wife, but perhaps these sonnets bring us to the time after Ann Mores death, when Donne did not have the identity he found in the eyes of his lovers. Donne found himself alone with God and his religious beliefs. Writing poetry has always been a private experience for Donne. His dramatic self-presentation remains in his writings. Professor Crofts asserts

And so, later in life, though the stuff of his meditations changes, this inability to lose himself remains. It is not of God that he thinks so often or so deeply as of his relation to God; of the torturing drama of his sin and its expiation, the sowing and the reaping, the wheat and the tares. The great commonplace of his sermons, it has been said, is death but in truth it is not death that inspires his frightful eloquence so much as the image of himself dying; and the pre-occupation culminates in that ghastly charade of his last hours, described by Walton, when he lay contemplating the portrait of himself in his winding-sheet like a grim and mortified Narcissus.

Again, the reader is thrust into the action of the poem in Sonnet 14. Donne calls on God in a frenzied demanding tone Batter my heart, three-personed God; for You/ As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend..., in a sense Donne wants God to beat sin out of him because he feels tempted by it. Donne does not feel part of a unit at this moment and calls on God to imprison him because he feels so distant and helpless.

The poet fears his own mortality and believes he is running towards death, that death is meeting him half-way. Many of the Divine Poems describe Donnes sickness and loneliness. He asks God to act, to repair his illness and prevent aging. In Holy Sonnet 1 Donne appears to be helpless

Thou hast made me, and shall Thy work decay?

Repair me now, for now mine end doth haste;

I run to death, and death meets me as fast... [lines 1-]

He begs God to be a magnet for his hardened heart, to tear him away from sin. In SonnetDonne wants God to fight for him. Poetry now becomes the model for his own salvation. Donne, in a sense, is an active participant by calling on God to save him. In Sonnet 5, the poet sees himself as a little world, his body similar to the entire world, his eyes swelled with tears like the sea. These images parallel his first Meditation

Is this the honour which man hath by being a little world that he hath these earth quakes in himself, sudden shakings; these lightnings, sudden flashes; these thunders, sudden noises; these eclipses, sudden offuscations and darkening of his senses; these blazing stars, sudden fiery exhalations; these rivers of blood, sudden red waters?

Donne refers to biblical stories of the Old Testament flood and the New Testament Apocalypse as he calls for God to drown and burn his sin contained within himself as a microcosm. In his sickness, he believes the biblical experience is being fulfilled in him, as was the Old Testament in the New. The Meditations and the Holy Sonnets have some differences. In the Meditations, Donne seems alone in his sickness, scorning the weakness of man; but in the Divine poems he seems to embrace sickness and death believing that this is how God is saving him from sin.

The Hymn to God, My God, In My Sickness was intended to be Donnes death-bed poem, the final acceptance of his sickness that he believes was in preparation for his salvation

Since I am coming to that holy room

Where, with thy choir of saints for evermore

I shall be made Thy Music, as I come

I tune the instrument here at the door,

And what I must do then, think here before. [lines 1-5]

The Hymn is a kind of personal release. The feeling of helplessness in his former poems are abandoned, and Donne seems confident that his bodily illnesses tuned his soul so it can enter heaven. This tuning of instruments refers to the writing of the Hymn itself, and the instrument, an image for Donnes soul, will become the music in Heaven.

John Donne takes a journey through his life and uses poetry in order to find his own identity. The poems take the reader through dramatic situations, confrontations, and debates between the poet and a person whose voice is not heard. In the poems Donne is acting out different personas-- characters like the womanizer, the monogamist lover, a man sick and dying calling on God to save his soul, and finally a man accepting his death to the point of obsession. This is a journey through the poets vulnerability, his pleas for sex, isolation, and finally salvation. Donnes writing reveals his attitudes about sex and religion, experiences he believes should be private and cut off from the outside and reality. By using elaborate conceits, Donne is not only trying to be witty and show his great learning as Samuel Johnson might suspect. The paradoxes and strange comparisons are written as an attempt to understand what is happening to him. The poetry portrays a man obsessed with himself, and obsessed with finding a place or a person so he can exist.

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What examples of prejudice does Scout encounter in "To Kill a Mockingbird" and what does she learn through her experiences?

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Prejudice stems from many things; it can come from any person at any time.Sometimes it is part of a person when they are born.A whole town, state or country can show prejudice towards others, in many cases it ends in violence.Hitler showed an extreme example when he tried to remove toe Jewish race from all the countries Germany occupied and blamed the Jews for society's ills.He thought they were all inferior and the Germans were the superior, Aryan race.Hitler did not think all of his decisions all the way through, prejudices are caused by the lack of knowledge of others.Most of the Maycomb people are presented as prejudiced in the novel through their behaviour and speech towards the Negroes, as Aunt Alexandra shows in her early treatment of Calpurnia.

To Kill a Mockingbird is thought by critics to be a true account of what life is like in the state of Alabama in the 10s because Lee grew up around that time in a small town called Monroeville.Maycomb is thought to be based upon the town of Monroeville.Tom Robinson's trial was based upon the author's own experience of the Scottsboro trial in which some Negro men were accused of raping two white women.

To Kill a Mockingbird investigates different types of prejudice throughout the novel.One form of prejudice is the hatred of the Negroes in the white community, in which violence breaks out in the form of the lynch mob at the jail.The murder of Tom Robinson by the lynch mob would strike a blow against the Negro community and secure the position of the white community as superior and in control.The mob felt a sense of power and courage in a group but nevertheless singularly they were still men.This was pointed out when Scout said, "Hey Mr Cunningham" which singled him out from the group.Scout enquires about his son Walter, touching Mr Cunningham's human nature.Mr Cunningham has children of his own and can imagine what it would be like for these children to be without their father.He had been caught in this violent and reckless act by an innocent child and here she was, knowing nothing and asking about his son and giving advice on his affairs as a concerned friend.By this Scout disarms Mr Cunningham and turns the mob away without any violence.The mob is shown the clarity of the situation they are in and where they had held anger now there was shame, for acting so in front of children, as if they had been children themselves and could not see the larger picture.

All the types of prejudice are all subtly with the Tom Robinson case.At Tom's trial Scout meets Mr Dolphus Raymond for the first time but judges him from the rumours around Maycomb, without considering that they may be false and not to judge on appearances.Mr Raymond's questionable character that the town has given him is proved false.He shows Scout, Dill and Jem what really is hidden in the sack he always carries around with him, from which the Maycomb folk have drawn so many conclusions.Living with a Negro woman is the most serious offence in Maycomb society and Scout can observe the prejudice the town has against this man.The townsfolk do not comprehend that a person could choose to have Mr Raymond's lifestyle of his own free will and while not under the influence of alcohol or any other substance.Mr Raymond, knowing what the town think of his life pretends that he is a drunkard to escape the worst of the town's scorn.He is simply encouraging their beliefs without telling the truth which would make the situation harder for everyone.This is in some ways a cowardly act on his part but makes the townsfolk more content with his life because they have a reason for his irrational behaviour.A truly brave and independent man would not give a damn about what other people think about his choices and continue to live his life as he sees fit.It is Mr Raymond's dependency on Maycomb and his fearfulness of their scorn that prevents him from being open and telling the truth.Scout learns that folk need a reason for another person's actions, which seem wrong in their minds.Once folk can latch onto a reason for certain behaviour they are happier and more likely to let that person be.Maycomb is too wrapped up in itself and the past to look into the future with a different outlook on life.This is also shown on Scout's first day at school with her teacher, Miss Caroline.Miss Caroline came from a different county and the class' preconception of her was for her to be a stereotypical person from that county based upon the information their parents had told them.Custom Essays on What examples of prejudice does Scout encounter in "To Kill a Mockingbird" and what does she learn through her experiences?

Maycomb society considers itself to be right and just in its actions and rules.In the ladies' missionary teas they gather together to discuss the town and how to improve the world by converting everyone to Christianity and abhorring these people's own traditions and beliefs.The ladies believe that there is no better town and society than Maycomb and this town must be shown as an example of perfection to the world.The ladies also believe that an African tribe that treats all the men and women as fathers and mothers to all the children is wrong and immoral to be one large family, helping each other.This in fact is a basically sound idea and is what would have happened in biblical times, the time with the same ideas and rules that they are trying to impose on other cultures, but rules that their own society does not follow.Harper Lee includes this in the novel as an example of what harm these ladies are doing to other communities with better relations than their own.Here these women are converting Negroes and doing what they consider good in a far away place when right on their doorsteps there are Negroes whom they outcast and criticise.

Scout learns at first hand what the people of the town think of her father, Atticus.Mrs Merriweather insults Atticus in his own home in front of his sister, neighbour and daughter by referring to him as one of the "misguided people" of the town.By insulting Atticus in the presence of his family Mrs Merriweather shows the company how two faced she really is, to be sitting in his home eating his food and then to insult him.Miss Maudie prevents more prejudice at the table as she comments "his food doesn't stick going down does it?".

There is clear segregation between the races from the very beginning of the novel with Scout's account of the Finch family history.Scout said the Finches' used slaves before the civil war on their plantation.The American civil war involved the North against the South, the North wanted the South to abolish slavery as it had done and the South wanted to keep the old ways.That the Finches used slaves shows the early social standing of the Negroes in southern America to be slaves.Over one hundred and fifty years has passed since the civil war but the Negroes in Alabama are treated hardly better than slaves, performing menial tasks and holding menial positions such as servants or farm hands.The Negroes are not allowed to hold important positions in the town, which confirms the townsfolk's hold on the law in Maycomb.A similar thing was happening in South Africa at the same time with an all white government ruling over the black majority, this system was called Apartheid.Everything is different for the Negro people of Maycomb.They live in the part of the town furthest away from the white citizens and the most unpleasant with its site being located by the rubbish dump as if they too were worthless.The Negroes are the dregs of the society in which they live and Lee illustrates this in her portrayal of their living conditions.In ordinary town life the Negroes have their own buildings for worship and a separate section to sit in the courthouse, which exemplifies the point further, that the Negroes are the lowest breed and should not be allowed to consort with the better people.The whites take no care for the sacred place they are in during the week when they gamble in the Negro community church, as if it was only worthy of being used for one of the lowest forms of entertainment.Tom Robinson ran away when he saw Bob Ewell because he knew just by having dark skin he would be accused of something and was scared.Traditionally if something bad happens in the town it is because the Negroes have caused it and there are no other possible suspects.When Boo Radley mixed with the wrong crowd all the havoc they caused was first blamed on the Negroes.Tom thought that Mr Ewell thought something was wrong he would consider him responsible for whatever had happened and no one would say otherwise.When Scout asks if she may visit Calpurnia, her Aunt rules it out without an explanation, saying, "You may not".This implies that Aunt Alexandra is prejudiced towards Calpurnia and her shortness and the tone she projects to the reader suggests this.

Scout also learns that Aunt Alexandra is not just prejudiced towards the Negro people.This happens when Scout suggests that she would like to be friends with Walter Cunningham.Aunt Alexandra's answer is no, Finches "don't mix" with the Cunninghams.This shows Aunt Alexandra not only to be prejudiced towards the Negroes but also towards those she deems of a lower social standing than her own, with a less pure blood line and a family streak.Her conclusion is that society is divided into several groupings of people, and none of the groups should mix.In Tom's trial this is true, Mayella was consorting with someone of a lower social standing, and a Negro.Atticus pointed this out further in his defence case when he made it clear that the other whites didn't want to know the Ewells and relationships are not allowed between people of a different skin colour.

Prejudice is everywhere and it cannot be escaped, wherever you go there will be some form of it however mild it may be.Boo Radley is a victim of prejudice himself and could not stand to live in a world will all the prejudiced people out there and out of choice chose to stay locked up in his house for many years, only coming out at night.People do not stay shut up away from life unless they have a phobia of something about it.

Few could escape some sort of prejudice in the 10's and this book shows this by showing examples of prejudice towards Atticus.His children are teased at school and the ladies of Maycomb gossip about him behind his back.People do not have other things to focus their attention on during the day, with no jobs available and no money to spend.They therefore spend too much time speculating about their neighbours.In writing this book the author investigates not only the types of prejudice but also the causes and consequences of it.In To Kill a Mockingbird Lee shows different prejudices, many caused by people's own infatuation with themselves.Tom Robinson is a victim of prejudice, the cause being his skin colour, the consequence, his death.

Harper Lee illustrates in the novel a human's need for a scapegoat to blame his or her own actions on.Tom Robinson is accused of raping Mayella Ewell after Mayella has broken the social code by kissing a Negro man.Mayella is not brave enough or wealthy enough to take the consequences of her actions as Mr Raymond did, instead she tries to dispose of the evidence of her crime.This is illustrated in Atticus' speech in the courtroom."She did something every child has doneshe tried to put the evidence of the offence away from her" Atticus says in the courtroom.He says this implying that Mayella wouldn't accept what she did and turns her guilt around onto Tom; making out that it is Tom's fault not her own, she has to pass on her guilt.

One other reason for prejudice is the fear and insecurity of crossing the barrier of tradition into the unknown.It is easy to follow the crowd, for example with the lynch mob.To stand up for what you believe in takes more courage.

This book tries to deal with how to combat prejudice it shows how an individual's actions like Atticus and Miss Maudie can make more of a difference and through this Scout learns how to cope with it herself.At the beginning of the novel Scout does not understand prejudice at all and is naïve and young.Through the teachings and examples set by her two role models Scout learns to cope with the world in a more adult way, understanding different people's perspectives.Miss Maudie, an example of a perfect citizen to Scout is criticized and people are prejudiced against her.When Cecil Jacobs continues to taunt her about her father she does not lash out in a physical way as she has done previously.Instead she follows Atticus' advice and does not retaliate, accepting that everyone is prejudiced about something and anything she can do will not change that.This book is an education in prejudice Scout and Jem start with not recognising prejudice at the beginning of the book and then learn about the prejudiced people in the community that they live in.They learn how to deal with and occasionally combat it, for example, when Miss Maudie manages to deflect criticism away from Atticus at the missionary tea.Scout does not assault Mrs Merriweather for speaking ill of her father in this scene, as she would have done at the beginning of the novel.

To Kill a Mockingbird also teaches the reader empathy by showing how Scout and Jem are taught it.Throughout the book Atticus teaches it to his children and says, "you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them", this is what Atticus implies to his children, it is a good moral to live by.The novel also educates the reader as well as showing the children being educated about the world.The reader has to stop and rethink back to the beginning of the book when Jem's arm is broken to understand the connections of how in the community of Maycomb it could be so narrow minded and how someone could attack another's children.The reader also has to reconsider why Boo Radley never wants to come out, giving you a different perspective towards the book and the inhabitants of Maycomb.By writing this novel, the author raises awareness of the prejudice that is in the southern USA.

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The culture of hip-hop

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Hip-hop! Yes, it is music. Nevertheless, many people do not realize that it is much more than that. Hip-hop is a form of art and culture, style and language, an extension of commerce, and for many, a natural means of living. Rap and hip-hop has been plagued by negative connotations of violence since its existence. Whether it is the controversial lyrics or the vicious murders of many artists, violence appears to be an everyday element of this "bad-boy" lifestyle. The recent death of Jam Master Jay (a hip-hop pioneer, disc jockey, and member of Run DMC), has garnished an everlasting question When does violence and negativity cease to be an associate of the hip-hop culture?

Jam Master Jay

On October 0, 00 the life of a trailblazer came to a vile end. DJ Jam Master Jay, born Jason Mizell, was brutally murdered inside a recording studio in New York City. His wife, two sons, mother, brother, and sister survive him. He was thirty-seven years of age. Another victim of the shooting was in critical condition, and has since recovered after being shot in the leg (Reid, MTV 1). Currently there has not been any arrest made in this murder mystery, and only brief details have been released to the public. New York City police detective Bernard Porter Jr. says, "Two assailants were buzzed in to the building, located at 0-10 Merrick Blvd. in Jays hometown of Queens. But police dont know if the perpetrators were allowed in from the studio or from one of two other businesses that share space in the building" (Reid, MTV ). Such newspapers as the New York Post have begun to speculate on the motive of Jay's murder. Black Entertainment Television reports that [The New York Post] speculates "Jam Master Jay may have been killed for a dispute over money, and fingered an individual named Curtis Scoon as the prime suspect in the investigation, and the man wanted by police for questioning" (Creekmur, BET). However, exact details remain unclear. Some believe that the murder was apart of a bitter rap rivalry, and others believe it was a drug deal gone wrong. However, friends and family close to Jay are certainly outraged by any mention of the previous, and they remain optimistic about finding his killer.

Jam Master Jay, along with Joe Run Simmons and Darryl DMC McDaniels, was apart of the rap group Run DMC for nearly twenty years. This disc jockey made music that the world adored. "His scratching and mixing exhibitions on songs such as Jam Master Jay, Sucker MCs and Peter Piper (which Missy Elliott uses a portion of on her latest single, Work It) were as influential on future disk jockeys as Run and DMCs raps were on the MCs who followed in their footsteps" (Reid, MTV 1). The lost of this man is tragic because he helped begin the hip-hop art form, when it was merely a few guys rhyming captivating words in the early nineteen eighties in Queens, New York. Rap artist Ice Cube says, "They're pioneers. Run-DMC made rap emerge out of hip-hop to be the signature art. Fellow hip-hop legend Big Daddy Kane concurred, Run-DMC definitely made me feel rap was here to stay (Reid, MTV 1). Once known as a simple form of music, which many spectators believed was only a trend; hip-hop has developed into a five billion dollar industry. This form of music has crossed all color barriers and can be heard in almost every country around the world. Some would argue that hip-hop, in some form or fashion, has impacted the lives of every American under the age of thirty-five. For these reasons, the senseless death of a pioneer has sent shock waves through the hip-hop culture.Custom Essays on The culture of hip-hop

Murder in Hip-Hop

With the murder of another hip-hop legend, many have begun to compare the tragic lost of Jam Master Jay to that of Tupac "Makaveli" Shakur and Christopher "The Notorious B.I.G." Wallace. These murders stemmed from the media's insistency to provide oxygen to the flame of violence within the hip-hop nation. During the mid-nineties a bitter rap rivalry between the west coast and east coast gave way for the media to divide the country into two conflicting sides. Wallace and his recording label Bad Boy Entertainment, Inc. had strong influence in the eastern area of the United States, while Shakur and Death Row Records, Inc. controlled the western portion of the country. Tupac's party recorded harsh lyrics, and the media turned the occurrence into a bi-coastal war. As fans of both artists, many felt torn between which artist was the best. However, the rivalry came to an end on September 6, 16 when Tupac was shot five times in Las Vegas, Nevada. On September 1, 16 he succumbed to his wounds. Many speculated that The Notorius B.I.G.was involved in the incident. However, in an event far for irony, Wallace was murdered nearly six months later in Los Angeles, California.The deaths of these two artists remain unsolved.

Both entourages of Tupac and Biggie have been accused for the murders. Yet, each party has been proven innocent by alibis. This has left many to hypothesize that angry fans, who took the hip-hop rivalry and lyrics too far, committed the murders.

Hip-Hop Lyrics

In the opinion of Xavier University freshman and hip-hop fan Leshay Wesson, "Society encourages artists to rhyme about specific topics. For example murder, homosexuality, theft, and drug usage are all encouraged topics because they exist in society. Therefore some artists think rapping or rhyming about them on a record will not have a negative effect on any of their listeners." At times some artists may even feel pressured to make songs that their listeners will like.This is displayed when Andre 000, member of the Grammy award winning group Outkast, raps on the song "Elevators."

"True I got more fans than average man/

But not enough loot to last me/

to da end of da week/

I live by da beat like you live check to check /

If you don't move yo feet/

den I don't eat/

So we like neck to neck."

Andre 000"Elevators" (Allen)

Regardless of how many fans Outkast have they will not be able to make a living without creating a song that listeners will enjoy. Hence the lyrics "If you don't move yo feet/ den I don't eat."

In accordance to freedom of expression principles, which hip-hop was founded upon, some artists have decided to rhyme about fancy cars, clothes, and other riches. However, others decided to produce music that speaks of hell, sin, the devil, and damnation. New hip-hop artist Pastor Troy, a Georgia native, is somewhat of an underground rapper who is slowly becoming mainstream with very different philosophies concerning damnation. The judgment of his own soul changes in each of his songs. Sometimes he states that he fights for the Lord, and other times he cannot decide which side he is on. (In his song 'Vica Versa' everything he says is suppose to mean the opposite.)

"Again I ask, Heaven was hell and vica versa

Would you start doin evil in order to nurture?--The spirit, man,

Do you understand that theres a war?

Its ragin on and the devil got some ammo too

Dont get me wrong,

But I put my trust off in the Lord

Its too corrupt

Know that God gon help me blow em up!"

"Protect me Devil, think the Lord is tryin to kill me

Its vica versa"

-Pastor Troy ("Vica Versa")

Heaven or Hell, where do we go?

When we die, eternal fire or the street of gold

Only God knows, vica versa.

-Peter the Disciple (Vice Versa)

"Vica Versa" is all about the war between God, Satan, and Pastor Troy himself. This battle has him so confused, which makes him feel as if he needs to question the divine plan. When Pastor Troy wrote this song, he symbolized faith and suggested to his listeners that perhaps everything they have learned is false, fabricated or inverted. Artist such as Troy permit many to believe hip-hop lyrics can be influential, as well as destructive to the minds of its listeners.

Where does hip-hop go from here?

According to Tinu Adeniji-Adele, an eighteen year-old hip-hop fan, "Hip-hop is not only a genre of music; its a language and a challenging way of life. From the distinct beats, the clothing and the seemingly aggressive and slack use of language, it is almost undeniable that hip hop maketh its listener." (Marks) If this is the case, can violence and negativity cease to be an associate of this culture, to encourage a positive generation of listeners? Well if this is to be determined by youth activist Pee Wee Kirkland and many other hip-hop moguls, the answer is yes. Mr. Kirkland, a former drug-dealer and gangster believes, The hip-hop world and the gangsta world are about to collide, and we have to stop the body count. This is a life-and-death matter. (Marks) Mr. Kirkland is at the head of a campaign entitled Hip-Hop 4 Peace. "At the core of their campaign is a conviction that amounts to heresy in some quarters of the rap world that artistic images do influence behavior, especially when it comes to young people, and that the industry has a responsibility to counter the glorification of guns and street hustling with a realistic message that empowers kids, rather than landing them in jail" (Marks). Hip-Hop 4 Peace supporters look forward to toning down the lyrics and subject matters of hip-hop, in order to help reduce the increasing social violence in youth lifestyles. On the other hand, the Hip-Hop Summit Action Network along with members of Congress are addressing issues of "Ending poverty, hunger, HIV/AIDS, homelessness, illiteracy, unemployment, police brutality, and many other life and death issues affecting the quality of life in our communities are more important than free speech"(Chavis-Muhammad and Simmons, 144). This association believes that increasing parental awareness of advisory labels on albums, is a more sensible alternative than the censorship in hip-hop. Even though these two organizations have opposing viewpoints on how to change the hip-hop culture, the desire to free hip-hop of its negative image remains constant.

Writer's opinion

The death of Jam Master Jay was not only sad, but it was disappointing because it only adds to the negativity of this culture. From analyzing his lyrics and simply reading the many testimonies of his peers, it seems that he was not a person with a violent nature. In pursuit of changing lives for the better, Jam Master Jay appears to have simply surrounded himself with the wrong people. However, until the details of the crime become evident then this notion will remain a mystery. The notion that hip-hop is simply a culture plagued with violence and negative connotations, is a tremendous outrage. Hip-hop has been the power tool of American youth, especially African-American youth. Hip-Hop artists such as Mary J. Blige, Common, Cee-Lo, and The Roots are all artists that continuously promote a positive message through with their music. When times are gloomy, a hip-hop song may take my mind off all worldly situations, and place me in a serene state of being. I am not going to argue that all hip-hop lyrics are positive, however, they are definitely not all negative. At times it seems that many artists try to appeal to everyone. On one song they may encourage young ladies to be respectable to their bodies and to refute men who degrade them, and then on another song they may refer to women as bitches and hoes. Some of the artists who rapped on a tribute song for the September 11th Attack (a song against any form of violence in the United States), are the same artist who in the past, as well as now, rhyme about having a gun and willing to shoot anyone who challenges their manhood. The Attack of September 11th could not change lyrics, hence the death of another star definitely will not either. Every American is entitled to freedom of speech; therefore the lyrics of hip-hop will forever linger in controversy. In opposition, the image of hip-hop will not remain controversial. Violence and negativity will cease to be an associate of the hip-hop culture as long as organizations such as the Hip-Hop Summit Action Network and Hip-Hop 4 Peace continue to take positive steps toward redefining hip-hop's image. Instead of simply listening and writing about hip-hop, on Friday November , 00 I partook in a Hip-Hop Collegiate Empowerment Summit at King Chapel on Morehouse College's campus. It was simply a case of luck that I was able to attend this event during a trip to Atlanta prior to the Thanksgiving holiday break. The theme of this summit was "empowering tomorrow's leaders economically, socially, and politically, today." Professionals in this industry refuse to accept the negative image that hip-hop is so commonly associated and have stepped up to make a difference, in a summit that permits them to inform and encourage the aspirations of college students. Such notables as Russell Simmons; Chairman of Def Jam Records, The Honorable Shirley Franklin; Mayor of Atlanta, Kimora Lee-Simmons; Creative Director of Baby Phat, Inc, Sway Calloway; Music Television (MTV) Correspondent, and Minister Benjamin Chavis; President of the Hip-Hop Summit Action Network were all on hand to address the current state of hip-hop in America. The economic power of hip-hop, hip-hop's negative image, and the death of Jam Master Jay were all topics discussed by these stars. When a student posed the question, "How has the death of Jam Master Jay altered your personal life, and what effect will it have on hip-hop as a whole?" the faces of the panelists were obviously distraught. "It's got to stop," Minister Chavis-Muhammad declared, "There's no reason for this violence. Have we not learned anything form the deaths of Biggie, Tupac… Big-L? This violence is senseless, and we must end it now! Today! Not tomorrow or the day after, but this very instance. This very second!" Russell Simmons went on to say, "Hip-hop is more powerful than any American cultural movement weve ever had, so why should it be used to convey violent and contravening images of our people? The death of Jay is ridiculous. Hip-hop as a whole has lost a legend. He was not only a legend, but he was my friend and he will be terribly missed."In addition to addressing the current state of hip-hop in America, students of the Atlanta University center were informed on career opportunities, and how to succeed in the entertainment industry. Artist demos, resumes, and modeling portfolios were all accepted by these stars, in order to help students make a positive start in the hip-hop entertainment world. Most importantly, these stars encouraged each attendee to register to vote at the on-site voter registration booth. I found this summit to be very stimulating and refreshing to the mind. Thus, it was great to finally see hip-hop in a positive aspect, rather than the negative dimness that is constantly portrayed on my television screen. This event's theme and the event as a whole obviously demonstrate that hip-hop is barely an avenue for violence and negativity, and for every negative aspect of this culture there is a positive one that hides behind it.

Please note that this sample paper on The culture of hip-hop is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The culture of hip-hop, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on The culture of hip-hop will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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