Subcultures: The Backpacker Neo-Tribe

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The following research essay is an analysis on the sub-cultural formation of the neo-tribe.In effectively studying neo-tribes, I will endeavour to identify some of their key characteristics and work to highlight the dominant ideals pertained by these modern-day clans.To fully conceptualise the notion of neo-tribes I will use the example of the 'backpacker' and identify how they are a neo-tribalistic formation while also drawing on specific examples from backpacker culture to theorise the notion of neo-tribes.Following the analysis on ideology of the neo-tribe, I will focus on how style and space operate in further defining the backpacker tribe from 'mainstream' culture, and engage in how cultural capital is gained within the group.Also, in further integrating the concept of subculture and the neo-tribe into everyday life I will use specific examples of the ways in which backpackers experience the travel hub, Bangkok, Thailand, as well as Australian backpacker's activities at the Spanish cultural festival, the 'Running of the Bulls.'

As a subcultural formation, the neo-tribe exists in opposing dominant ideologies represented in mainstream culture.In defying subordination by hegemonous groups, sub-cultures seek to challenge these values through identifying their own opposing ideology, style and living practices.Conceptualised by Gramsci, hegemony refers "to the way in which dominant groups within society through a process of moral and intellectual leadership, gain a form of consent from subordinate groups." Subcultures, in particular neo-tribes, act as a resistant body to hegemonous ideals, providing means in which subordinate groups can resist interpellation into dominant ideology.Polhemus simply defines 'tribes' as deviant subcultural groups, "serving to distinguish 'us' from 'them.'" However, the neo-tribe beholds some kind of difference from merely an opposition to mainstream culture, but refers to an "empathetic 'sociality', which is expressed by a succession of ambiences, feelings and emotions."As Maffesoli highlights, resistance is also structured by the neo-tribe through a shared ethical ideal or understanding amongst its members, drawing on "the German Romantic idea of Stimmung (atmosphere)" .The backpacker reflects this notion of a shared, unifying ideology, rather than ideology hailing its audience to interpellate.This shared ideal refers to the backpacker's quest to see as much of the world as possible, for as long as possible while spending as little as possible.This is the binding ethos of the backpacker tribe, which further defines its members as part of a subculture through its resistance to capitalist ideology.They do not conform to hegemonic, capitalist ideals because the backpacker is not a true consumer - they do not work, spend any money, and especially do not seek out material goods in further renewing their identity.While this statement may seem paradoxical in nature, as neo-tribes, including backpackers, make use of commodities to encode meanings regarding style and taste, for the period of time at which the backpacker is removed from their 'normal' life they subvert the notion of the evolving consumer that must seek out new and original commodities in following fashion.However, I will not explicate this idea too much this early, as I will examine the intricacies of the function of style and taste later on in the essay.

Connected to the notion of a shared ideal is the shared social experience, and furthermore the sharing of the same territory.In illustrating the perception of the collective subject, "it may be said that the aesthetics of sentiment are in no way characterised by an individual or 'interior' experience, but on the contrary, by something essentially open to others." As Maffesoli identifies, the neo-tribe is characterised by the sharing of space and territory with other members.It is important to note that not only is the territory shared in terms of real space, but also within imagined spaces such as the Internet.The new and accessible technology allows any member of the tribe to partake within this community.This is highlighted on backpacker websites such as Backpackers on the Netand Backpack Outbackthat provide access to message-boards, creating a space that is shared amongst any person wishing to invest into the backpacker community.Within these online spaces, fellow backpackers share essential information regarding cheap accommodation, good bars, and tips for easy travelling.Because "Neo-tribes are marked by their fluidity they are locally condensed and dispersed, periodically assembled and scattered"the Internet provides an stable and easily accessible platform on which members can share some kind of territory or space, even despite its intangible form.

Another essential element to the shared social experience is the ritual, and "although [it] is not goal oriented, its repetition acts to confirm the groups view of itself." The ritual provides a space where members of the neo-tribe can reaffirm a sense of solidarity and individual identity within the tribe while also further subverting themselves from the mainstream.An example of a ritual that works in such ways is at the 'Running of the Bulls' festival in Spain.At this world-famous cultural festival, a most interesting neo-tribal gathering occurs at a piazza removed from the actual festivities.It is at the Muscles Bar that Australian, New Zealand and South African backpackers come togetherto celebrate their collective identity, further supporting the belief in a unified, tribalistic community.They subvert themselves from the main festivities in forming a temporary mini-colony of Anglo-backpackers where everyone gets drunk and performs the ritual of jumping off tall statues to be caught by fellow backpackers.This rite is of symbolic poignancy, as the fellow backpackers trust each other enough to risk injury or possible death if not caught by the unknown, yet fellow members on the ground.The tribalistic nature of the ritual is highlighted in how it is subverted from the mainstream; only backpackers from the three nations know about the mini-festival and there is no invitation, but merely common knowledge on the part of the backpacker from one of the three nations.This ritual identifies how "such activities may provide a focus for collective emotions, [and] constitute real underground movements" , identifying the connection between identity and space and how tribes seek to become a collective group, where experience is shared with other anonymous members within the margins of society.

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Parallel to the connection between identity and space is the importance of style as a signifier of identity.Style is important to a subculture, as it acts as a "communication of a significant difference…and the parallel communication of a group identity." Therefore style is an important medium at which neo-tribes encode meanings about who they are, including who they identify with and who they seek to distance themselves from.Because membership in the neo-tribe "does not require an admission procedure, [existing] solely by virtue of individual decisions to sport the insignia of tribal allegiance"the commodity is then an important tool of communication and identity for the tribe.Before analysis on the incorporation of commodities in forming a style for the neo-tribe it is important to examine the aforementioned paradox that the backpacker challenges notions of capitalist consumption yet uses its products to signify identity.Important to this idea is the difference between fashion and style, whereby "style isn't trendy.Quite the opposite.It's inherently conservative and traditional." Henceforth, style is employed by a subculture as a symbol of resistance to capitalist, commodity consumption.This is identified in backpacker culture through the sole concern with use value.Because the backpacker, as the name would suggest, lives out of a backpack, one would have little concern with commodities of exchange.The style of the backpacker further highlights this resistance to capitalist consumption and fashion, always with simple, casual clothes, often purchased from local markets and used practically, not for fashion.The fact that the backpacker style and image attempts to engage in an anti-style, which paradoxically is a style in itself, identifies the way that subcultural style provides resistance through not conforming to dominant codes of fashion.Therefore, members of a subculture, such as the backpacker "display their own codes or at least demonstrate that codes are there to be used and abused." This explains how the backpacker incorporates styles from other cultures in highlighting the global nature of their image, which revolves around use value and practicality, thus encoding ideals of anti-fashion into their clothing.

Another symbol of the backpacker tribe's resistance to dominant ideologies regarding fashion and image is the fact that their style is relatively static and unchanging.During the time they are away from their home the backpacker does not invest in fashion, ultimately resisting the cycle of consumerism and circular fashion trends.In fact, the style of the backpacker beholds far greater symbolic meaning of their identity, ideals, and membership to the tribe if their clothing is older and farther removed from hegemonic ideals of fashion. This represents the attempt by the backpacker to subvert ideology regarding the investment in fashion; as to invest in the tide of commodity consumption would be to highlight the importance of materialism, an ethos that is rejected by the backpacker tribe and often the reason for their escape to alternative cultures.

One problem with subcultural style is that the fresh codes of signification they provide are usually incorporated and legitimised in fashion.The process of legitimation, signifying the death of subcultural style, refers to the incorporation of "original innovations which signify 'subculture' are translated into commodities and made generally available, they become frozen."An example of a traditional stylistic symbol of the backpacker is the Birkenstock sandal, a Dutch-made sandal that was originally cheap, comfortable and for backpackers, symbolised the departure from rampant materialism and adherence to fashion codes.However, in the past few years Birkenstock sandal's have become hugely popular and have been incorporated into the fashion industry, drawing on the same symbolic value held within the backpacker tribe to connote to bohemian-like ideas of worldliness.This process signifies the death of the original subcultural style, because its main function is to "transcend fashion [and] differ from mainstream fashions in order to express social distance from hegemonous groups." Thus, while commodity consumption is used to indicate style, it resists dominant ideology of fashion because it constructs its own opposing codes and symbolic functions.Once legitimation takes place, tribal style no longer expresses social distance, but is swallowed up into mainstream culture and fashion.

The style and image of the backpacker can be classified as resistant to the image of the middle-aged, wealthy tourist, who is still enveloped in familiar commodities of exchange and luxury value.The minimal style of the backpacker represents the effort to immerse themselves in a different culture, as opposed to the mainstream tourists who view the culture, however are still somewhat removed from it.This is also highlighted by the different spaces that are inhabited by the mainstream, middle-aged tourist and the neo-tribal backpacker.For example, Bangkok, Thailand, has two distinct areas for backpackers and wealthy tourists.The backpacker centre, Kao San Road, appears just as any other gritty and claustrophobic road in Bangkok, with millions of food stalls, hawkers and speeding cars.The only difference is the large proportion of Westerners and the rundown buildings lining the street are backpacker guesthouses.The shabby hostels are symbolic in themselves the backpackers concern with use value and not comfort or secondary pleasures.However, Siam Square, the main tourist centre, is actually lifted above street level, where tourists can go from their hotels into the American-centric, mega-malls without even having to experience the throng of cars, beggars or people.Even their hotels provide creature comfort such as TV, mini bar, and even advertise 'Western Style Bathrooms.'This juxtaposition represents the backpacker's attempts to subvert themselves from the tourist by living at street level, in the Backpackers Ghetto while the tourist views Thai culture from a safe, comfortable, westernised space.For the backpacker this binary opposition represents a "mental map, rich in cultural detail and value judgement, [offering] them a distinct sense of [their] place but also a sense of the others place." Henceforth, the 'mental map' describes how the backpacker's perception of the tourist is loaded with a value judgement of them as a homogenous other, a faceless mass.

The backpacker's obsession with immersion is extremely important because it provides 'authentication', meaning "the ascription of authenticity to places and experiences by labelling them as 'traditional' or 'natural.'" Therefore, constructed tourist areas lack the authenticity of realistic and natural culture of a country. Important to understanding 'authentication' and the quest for immersion is Bourdieu's work on cultural capital.Fully conceptualised in his book Distinction, Bourdieu defines cultural capital as "knowledge that is accumulated through upbringing and education which confers social status." In the context of the backpacker tribe, cultural capital is defined through experiences of the world, and knowledge of foreign countries.One who is knowledgeable on travel tips, stories and specific advice holds a great amount of cultural capital.Within the backpacker tribe, knowledge and information not only establish a miniature class system but is also used as a virtual currency, which is traded with other backpackers in further expanding knowledge, and thus gaining more cultural capital.Vital to acquiring greater cultural capital for a backpacker is seeking out the natural and authentic experience, as finding the true essence of a foreign country allows them to effectively 'collect places', a process which allows them to build a database of representations and knowledge of the world as a series of differences from home. This process can only be performed if the traveller is basing these representations on the true essence of a culture, thus the quest for authenticity further exemplifies how backpackers seek to subvert the mainstream tourist.

The fascination with the authentic, represented in attempts by the backpacker to subvert themselves from the 'mainstream' tourist, surmises the core ethos of what it means to be a backpacker, ultimately describing why areas like Nimbin, Kao San Rd in Bangkok, Thailand, and Prague in Czechoslovakia are backpacker hubs.It is because they represent an escape from capitalist consumer culture.While this ideal may no longer be true, their popularity amongst the backpacker tribe has only increased because the representation of these spaces as escaping the clutches of capitalist commodity culture is still alive and well, symbolising a retreat to authentic and real culture.

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MANAGING GLOBAL HUMAN RESOURCES

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Cultural Forces

Phases of Globalization

Recruitment & Selection Process

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Special Activities

Compensation Pressures

Labor Relations

Unions

The environment in which business competes is rapidly becoming globalized. More and more companies are entering international markets by exporting their products overseas, building plants in other countries, and entering into alliances with foreign companies. Global competition is driving changes in organizations throughout the world. Companies are attempting to gain a competitive advantage, which can be provided by international expansion. Deciding whether to enter foreign markets and whether to develop plants or other facilities in other countries is no simple matter and many human resource issues surface. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright; 54)

Doing business globally requires that adaptations be made to reflect cultural and other factors that differ from country to country and from continent to continent. The nature and stability of political systems vary in character and stability, with contracts suddenly becoming unenforceable because of internal political factors. Human resource regulations and laws vary among countries in character and detail. In many countries in Western Europe, laws on labor unions and employment make it difficult to reduce the number of workers because required payments to ex-employees can be very high. Equal employment legislation exists to varying degrees. In some countries, laws address issues such as employment discrimination and sexual harassment.

CULTURAL FORCES

Cultural forces represent another important concern affecting international human resource management. Culture is composed of the societal forces affecting the values, beliefs, and actions of a distinct group of people. (Mathis & Jackson, 171) Cultural differences certainly exist between nations, but also between countries. Getting individuals from different ethic or tribal backgrounds to work together may be very difficult in some parts of the world. Culture is important to human resources for two reasons. It determines the other factorspolitical-legal, economic, and education-human capital factors. Culture affects human capital, because if education is greatly valued by culture, then members of the community try to increase their human capital. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright; 57) Economic conditions vary also from country to country. Many lesser-developed nations are receptive to foreign investment in order to create jobs for their growing populations. In many developed countries, especially in Europe, unemployment has grown, but employment restrictions and wage levels remain high.

PHASES OF GLOBALIZATION

The internationalization of U.S. corporations has grown than the internationalization of human resource management. International human resource management differs from domestic human resource management in several ways. In the first place, it places a greater emphasis on functions and activities such as relocation, orientation, and translation services to help employees adapt to a new and different environment outside their own country. Assistance with tax matters, baking, investment management, home rental while on assignment, and coordination of home visits is also usually provided by the human resource department. Larger corporations have a full-time staff of human resource managers devoted to assisting globalization. For example, McDonald's has a team of HR directors who travel around the world to help country managers stay updated on international concerns, policies, and programs. The human resource department in an overseas unit must be particularly responsive to the cultural, political, and legal environments. Companies such as Shell, Xerox, Levi Strauss, Digital, and Honeywell have made a special effort to create codes of conduct for employees throughout the world to make certain that standards of ethical and legal behavior are known and understood. (Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell; 6)

A growing number of organizations that operate only within one country are recognizing that they must change and develop a more international perspective. Organizations may pass through three stages that are import-export (national) companies, multinational enterprises (MNE), and global organizations. National companies do not become global companies immediately. Involvement in international HRM depends greatly on a companys phase of globalization. Import-export firms. Firms in the first phase of globalization simply move products across national boundaries. The firm does not employ people in other countries, except a few managers responsible for negotiating business agreements. These agreements usually involve buying or selling complete products or services. Import-export firms need to understand their trading partners cultures and usually must overcome communication barriers to negotiate agreements. Negotiations are usually done by expatriate representatives, but expatriates are not employed as extensively by import-export firms as by multinational enterprises. HR policies and practices remain relatively unchanged from the companys traditional home-base practices. (HR Magazine,06-01-15)

Multinational enterprises (MNEs). Firms in the second phase of globalization have strategic corporate units located in foreign countries. Part of the firms goods or services may be produced in one country, then possibly moved to another country for additional assembly, and ultimately distributed to other countries where they are sold by employees of the firm. MNEs typically make extensive use of expatriate managers who are sent from headquarters to oversee foreign operations. Expatriate managers play important strategic roles. They coordinate between subsidiaries and headquarters, implement strategy, ensure the quality and effectiveness of organizational control systems, and manage global information systems. They also gain expertise in international business skills that are critical to ensuring that top executive positions are filled by competent replacements with the necessary international experience and perspectives. Multinational enterprises hiring workers in foreign countries must create and administer HR practices adapted to each country. In addition to hiring, some of the most significant HR issues for MNEs are training a foreign workforce, complying with the host countrys employment laws, monitoring labor costs, selecting expatriates, and helping them and their families succeed in the new assignment. (HR Magazine, 06-01-15)

Global firms. Firms in the final phase of globalization have strategic corporate units in multiple countries that interact with both headquarters and each other. Specialized functions may be performed in different countries - for example, engineering in one country, research in another country and production in yet another. People and products are moved extensively across national boundaries to meet company demands. Global firms make moderate use of expatriate managers. Other professional employees may also be asked to relocate. Expatriate managers provide leadership and continuity in the various divisions. These foreign assignments help the managers in their career development, with one or more foreign assignments considered essential for progression to higher levels of leadership.

RECRUITMENT & SELECTION PROCESS

Employee recruitment in other countries is subject to more government regulations than it is in the United States. Regulations range from those that cover procedures for recruiting employees to those that govern the employment of foreign labor or require the employment of the physically disabled, war veterans, or displaced persons. (Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell; p. 64) All countries have work-permit or visa restrictions that apply to foreigners. A work permit is a document issued by a government that grants the authority to foreigners to find employment in that country. Foreign workers invited to come to perform needed labor are the guest workers. The employment of foreigners may involve lower direct labor costs, but indirect cost such as language training, health services, recruitment, transportation and so on may be substantial.

The selection process for an international assignment should provide a true picture of the life, work, and culture to which the employee may be sent. Human resource managers should prepare a comprehensive description of the job to be done. The description should note responsibilities that would be unusual in home country. The responsibilities might include negotiating with public officials; interpreting local work codes; and responding to ethical, moral, and personal issues such as religious prohibitions and personal freedoms. The selection process should emphasize different employment factors, depending on the extent that one would have with the local culture and the degree to which the foreign environment differs from the home environment. If a candidate for expatriation is willing to live and work in a foreign environment, and indication of his or her tolerance of cultural differences should be obtained. The finding employees who can meet the demands of working in a foreign environment can be one of the toughest jobs for many organizations. Many companies have been hesitant to send women on overseas assignments. Executives assume that women do not want international assignments, but the reality is that the rate is equal to that of men. It is also important that companies are increasingly using transnational teams to conduct international business. These teams are especially useful for performing tasks that the firm as a whole is not yet structured to accomplish. They might be used to transcend the existing organizational structure to customize a strategy for different geographic regions, transfer technology form one part of the world to another, and communicate between headquarters and subsidiaries in different countries. The fundamental task in forming a transnational team is assembling the right group of people who can work together effectively to accomplish the goals of the team. Many companies try to build variety into their teams in order to maximize responsiveness to the special needs of different countries.

SPECIAL ACTIVITIES

Employees that work in international area face special activities as orientation and training, continuing employee development, and readjustment training and development. The orientation and training that expatriates and their families receive before the international assignment begins include work adjustment, interaction adjustment and general adjustment such as language, culture, history, and living conditions. Career planning and continued involvement of expatriates in corporate employee development activities are essential. One of the greatest deterrents to accepting foreign assignments is employees' concern that they will be out of sight and out of mind. If businesses are to be managed effectively in an international setting, managers need to be educated and trained in global management skills. For example, Levi Strauss has identified the following six attributes of the global manager. Those are the ability to seize strategic opportunities; ability to manage highly decentralized organizations; awareness of global issues; sensitivity to issues to diversity; competence in interpersonal relations; and skill in building community. (Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell; 640)

COMPENSATION PRESSURES

Organizations with employees in many different countries face some special compensation pressures. Variations in laws, living costs, tax policies, and other factors all must be considered in establishing the compensation for expatriate managers and professionals. Even the value of the U.S. dollar can be tracked and adjustments made as the dollar rises or falls in relation to currency rates in other countries. Add to all of these concerns the need to compensate employees for the costs of housing, schooling of children, and yearly transportation home for themselves and their family members. Many multinational firms have compensation programs that use the balance-sheet approach that provides international employees with a compensation package that equalizes cost differences between the international assignment and the same assignment in the home country. Unlike the balance-sheet approach, a global market approach to compensation requires that the international assignment must be viewed as continual though the assignment may take the employee to different countries for differing lengths of time.

LABOR RELATIONS

The nature of employee and labor relations varies form country to country. When international operations are considered, concerns related to health safety, and security must be evaluated. It is important to understand the applicable labor-management laws, regulations, and practices before commencing operations in foreign countries. With more and more expatriates working internationally, especially in the less-developed countries, health and safety issues are arising and addressing these issues is part of the human resource role. Another consideration is provision of emergency evacuation services. Many global firms purchase coverage for their international employees from an organization that provides emergency services, such as International SOS, Global Assistance Network, or U.S. Assist.

UNIONS

The role of unions differs from the unions in the United Stated to the unions in other countries. It depends on many factors, such as the level of per capita, mobility between management and labor, homogeneity of labor and level of employment. Labor relations in Europe differ form those in the United States in certain characteristics In Europe, organizations negotiate the agreement with the union at the national level though the employer association representing their particular industry. Unions in many European countries have more political power than those in the U.S., with the result that when employers deal with the union they are dealing indirectly with the government. There is a greater tendency in Europe for salaried employees to be unionized.

WORK CITED

Cherrington, David J., Laura Zaugg Middleton. An Introduction To Global Business Issues. http//www.elibrary.com

HR Magazine. 06-01-15

Internet available http//www.ihrin.org/affiliates/index.cfm

Mathis, Robert L., John H. Jackson. Human Resource Management. Essential Perspectives. 1st edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 1.

Noe, Raymond A., John R. Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, and Patrick M. Wright. Human Resource Management. Gaining A Competitive Advantage. rd edition. Irwin McGraw-Hull. Boston, 000.

Sherman, Arthur, George Bohlander, and Scott Snell. Managing Human Resources. 11th edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 18.

Cherrington, David J., Laura Zaugg Middleton. An Introduction To Global Business Issues. http//www.elibrary.com

HR Magazine. 06-01-15

Internet available http//www.ihrin.org/affiliates/index.cfm

Mathis, Robert L., John H. Jackson. Human Resource Management. Essential Perspectives. 1st edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 1.

Noe, Raymond A., John R. Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, and Patrick M. Wright. Human Resource Management. Gaining A Competitive Advantage. rd edition. Irwin McGraw-Hull. Boston, 000.

Sherman, Arthur, George Bohlander, and Scott Snell. Managing Human Resources. 11th edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 18.

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Motivation in an Educational context

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INTRODUCTION

Motivation is the process of initiating and directing behaviour based on the persistence of effort to satisfy an individual goal or need (Petri, 11; Robbins et al, 000 and Robbins et al, 001).There are two approaches to understanding motivation, each of which has theories expanding to support the nature of motivation.Content theories focuses on what motivates an individual. In contrast to process theories of motivation which focus on how individual behaviour is motivated. This essay will focus on motivation in an educational context and the importance to provide opportunities and motivation for students.The purpose of this essay is to present a theoretical overview of the key differences between content theories and process theories of motivation. Then a programme developed from a theory to be applied to an undergraduate business course at Monash University.The motivational programme will focus on improving the assessment technique used by lecturers and tutors (¡§teachers¡¨) that will motivate and improve undergraduate students learning ability. The aim will be to encourage students to gain a better understanding of the core concepts of business.Assessment in universities needs to be reshaped in order to motivate students.

CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Content theories are also referred to, as need theories.That is, motivational theories that look at what individual needs motivate and direct behaviour to respond to specific goals. Many early theories from the 150's, include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y and Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory, established core concepts which have helped explain motivation especially in an organisational setting.McClelland's three needs theory is a more contemporary view on the content theory approach to motivation that focuses on three important needs in work situations.Each theory identifies individual needs in order to understand behaviour.The main factors that underlie this approach is the need to understand that individuals have different needs, and what can be offered in response to these different needs as well as the importance on the external working environment to give individuals the opportunity to satisfy their needs (Robbins et al, 000, p558).An example of a content theory of motivation is Douglas McGregor theory of the ¡¥economic man¡¦. He proposedcontrasting views of human nature.

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McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y suggested one negative (Theory X) and one positive (Theory Y) view on human beings. He ¡§concluded that a manager's view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mould his or her behaviour towards employees according to these assumptions¡¨ (Robbins et al, 001, p1).

The negative assumptions were labeled ¡¥Theory X¡¦, which held four dominant assumptions of workers.Workers dislike work and go to great strengths to avoid it.Based on this it is believed that workers need to be punished with tight control systems in order for them to achieve goals.In addition, workers lack responsibility, thus need formal directions from superiors to perform.Such Theory X workers are predominately motivated by lower-order needs according to Maslow's hierarchy for example they need security.In contrast, ¡¥Theory Y¡¦ assumes higher order needs dominate individuals.Thus, Theory Y workers enjoy responsibility where they can exhibit self-direction and self-control.Therefore, in order to motivate workers, mangers need to provide a working environment that provides challenging jobs and minimal formalisation.

Applying this to an educational context, it can be assumed that teachers can either have a Theory X or a Theory Y view of students.That is, teachers can view students as ¡§lazy or un-cooperative¡¨ (Theory X) OR as ¡§being clever and work hard¡¨ (Theory Y).Teachers that adapt a Theory Y approach, are more likely to be attuned to students¡¦ needs, actively participate with students to increase student skill-development and learning (OECD, 000).

It is important for teachers to become more student-centered. Therefore assessment must ¡§focus more on student learning outcomes and students¡¦ attitudes about what they are learning and their role in the teaching and learning process¡¨ (Carey, Wallace and Carey, 001). This can be better understood by considering process theories of motivation.Process theories of motivation set out to explain how people choose a course of action they will pursue, not solely on individual needs like content theories.

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Despite the fact that content theories of motivation have helped many organisations understand employee motivation, many of their concepts alone do not provide a comprehensive understanding of motivation.Therefore, the introduction of another approach to understanding motivation was brought about. Process theories of motivation attempt to explain the process of arousing behaviour, sustaining and regulating the pattern of behaviour (Ames and Ames, 18). Theories include goal setting, reinforcement, equity and expectancy theory.¡§These theories attempt to explain why people choose to behave in a certain way and the reasons they react as they do¡¨ (Robbins et al, 000, p558).In contrast to content theories of motivation, which looked at what initiates behaviour to satisfy a need, this approach broadens the perspective of motivation.It looks at the underlying reasoning that influence individuals to behave and respond in a certain way.Therefore, motivating students by either punishing them to perform or encouraging self-direction, the goal setting theory, identifies underlying factors that achieve a given behaviour, which is the key to understanding the process approach to motivation.

Goal setting theory states that ¡§specific and difficult goals, with goal feedback, lead to higher performance¡¨ (Robbins et al, 001, p770). That is, work motivation can be increased with goal specific directed behaviour.It also proposes that difficult goals, provided that the individual has accepted them, lead to higher performance than general goals. However, feedback is essential in the achievement of specific and difficult goals ¡§because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do¡¨ (Robbins et al, 000, p55). In order to gain the performance benefits of specific goals, feedback helps shape the individuals behaviour.Better still, self-generated feedback is a greater motivator as it allows the individual to monitor their progress.

Robbins et al (000) suggested that goal setting theory is best suited to cultures were there is a moderate power distance, low in uncertainty avoidance and high in quantity of life like Australia and New Zealand.These ensure a reasonable level of independence amongst individuals and those individuals will not be threatened to take on difficult goals.Also the importance of performance is shared by all.

In goal setting theory, ¡§the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influenced by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which the goals are set¡¨ (Brotherton, 1, p6).Therefore, in an educational context the teacher and student need to work together to determine behavioural strategies that will lead to performance.End-of course evaluations conducted by Monash University ¡§elicit students¡¦ attitudes about instructors and the role that they play in the teaching/learning process¡¨ (Carey, Wallace and Carey, 001).Such instruments assess students¡¦ motivation for learning and allow for continuous course and program improvement.

MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMME

Feedback from end-of course evaluations ¡§usually prompts an ongoing adaptation of a course to the emerging learning needs of its students¡¨ (Panasuk and Leabaron, 1).It was found that ¡§students consistently expressed views that¡Knew assessment motivated them to work in different ways¡¨ (Sambell and McDowell, 18).The aim in developing motivational programme for undergraduate students will focus on assessment reform applying the goal setting theory. This proposition will encourage students to target specific goals, in hope that it will result in higher performance.The programme will involve students in their evaluation process in order to motivate them to actively participate in their skill-development and improve learning.¡§Every act of assessment gives a message to students about what they should be learning and how they should go about it¡¨(Sambell and McDowell, 18).The programme will suggest that goals based evaluation criteria will improve students¡¦ motivation in turn achieving a greater level of performance.

The programme will focus on behaviour related to undergraduate business students at Monash University.It will include a check mark grading system that will be designed around behavioural objectives. ¡§The check-mark systems sets a specific standard for document quality, and instructors give a paper a ¡¥check mark¡¦ when it meets the standard¡¨ (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1).Students are required to set their own achievement goals, in terms of grades based on their overall subject result.That way they can evaluate their progress toward their goals on their own with each assignment mark.¡§This necessitates defining goals for oneself, using self-directed strategies to accomplish these goals, and assessing progress¡¨ (Larsen and Thisted, 1).

The programme will involve behavioural objective questionnaires that will identify what the students want to achieve at Monash.This will include long-term goals (degree completion) as well as short-term goals (average subject result e.g. distinction, right down to improving structure of writing).¡§Defining tasks in terms of short-term goals can help students to associate effort with success, but of course long-term goals are also needed if students are to become lifelong ¡Vlearners¡¨ (OECD, 000, p.1). It will also involve social objectives (develop a good rapport with teachers). ¡§Using behavioural objectives may help students organize and structure¡¨ their learning and ¡§may produce positive attitudes toward learning¡¨ (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1).Also, they outline behavioural objectives of each student, which are associated with goal difficulty.

In addition, a student performance evaluation form is to be handed in with each assignment, outlining specific goals that the essay is to achieve. For example, good use of relevant and current references, each paragraph systematically links one to the other etc.Also the overall mark the student expects on the assignment based on their effort.

From this teachers are to use the check mark system and self-evaluation system to grade the work.It is very important to give feedback, especially in relation to student evaluation forms outlining their objectives.Limited feedback such as ¡§À¡¨ meaning well done or ¡§?¡¨ meaning re-consider, needs to be more specific.Effective feedback should provide shorthand comments, throughout the paper and on the marking sheet, clearly clarifying any issues.Such feedback is called evaluative feedback.¡§Evaluative feedback helps the individual understand the performance information by comparing it to standards or to the individual's own past performance¡¨ (Larsen and Thisted, 1). In addition, it is important to direct them where possible to achieve a higher mark, therefore feedback needs to be constructive.¡§Constructive feedback is task-specific and focuses attention on the task¡¨(Larsen and Thisted, 1). By focusing on the task and ¡§providing target objectives results in the achievement of more objectives¡¨ (Sambell and McDowell, 18). When students use the check-mark system, they can identify what they must do to achieve higher marks.Obviously, the goal difficulty set by students varies among the constraints of his/her ability.

In this programme, it is important to provide specific feedback and include student participation in selecting objectives. In light of this, between the behavioural objectives system, grading method and student outcomes, students should actually be motivated to increase performance under these systems.

CONCLUSION

The theoretical issues proposed in motivational theories such as the economic man developed by McGregor and the benefits of setting specific and difficult goals are important. The distinction on how they motivate an individual is a major influence on behaviour. Applying motivational theory to an educational context we draw our attention toward skill development, satisfaction and achievement. In developing a motivational programme, the focus was on assessment reform focusing on undergraduate business students at Monash University.Teachers and students need to work together in assessing ones performance. It is believed that ¡§individuals are mutually motivated to learn when they do not have to fear failure, when they perceive what they are learning as being personally meaningful and relevant and when they are in respectful and supportive relationships with teachers¡¨ (OECD, 000, p).Therefore, by using a goal setting approach to motivate students, student participation in selection of objectives in assessment criteria is important.Also teachers need to provide more specific feedback.It has been found in ¡§research on the motivational value of goals, both the check-mark and behavioural/performance objective systems seem to motivate students to improve performance¡¨ (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1).However, with today's rapid change and emergence of new knowledge and theory, universities will have more concepts on which to build and develop on ¡§motivating the school's participants so as to obtain the best possible educational results¡¨ (Panasuk and Lebaron, 1).

REFERENCE LIST

1. Ames, C. and Ames, R., 18, Research on Motivation in Education, Academic Press, Inc., California.

. Brotherton, C., 1, Social Psychology and Management Issues for a changing society, Open University Press, Buckingham.

. Carey, L. M., Wallace, T, L. and Carey, J. O., Spring-001, ¡§Assessing Students¡¦ Course Related Attitudes Using Keller's Model of Academic Motivation¡¨, Academic Exchange Quarterly, Vol. 5, Issue , p87-6.

4. Fishkin, A. S., Cramond, B. and Olszewski-Kubilius, P., 1, Investigating Creativity in Youth Research and Methods, Hampton Press Inc., USA.

5. Green, R. G., Bretzin, R., Leininger, C. and Stauffer, R., Spring-Summer 001, ¡§Research learning attributes of graduate students in social work, psychology, and business¡¨, Journal of Social Work Education, Vol.7, Issue , p-4.

6. Larsen, H. H. and Thisted, L. N., March-1, ¡§Relationship between feedback and self-development¡¨, Group & Organization Management, Thousand Oaks, Vol. 4, Issue 1, p5-7.

7. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (¡§OECD¡¨), 000, Motivating Students for Lifelong Learning¡¨ OECD, USA.

8. Panasuk, R. M. and Lebaron, J., Winter-1, ¡§Student Feedback A tool for improving instruction in graduate education¡¨, Education, Vol. 10, Issue , p56-6.

. Petri, H. L., 11, Motivation Theory, Research, and Applications, (rd Edition), Wadsworth Publishing Company, California.

10. Robbins, S. P., Bergman, R., Stagg, I. and Coulter, M., 000, Management, (nd Edition), Prentice Hall, Australia.

11. Robbins, S. P., Millet, B., Cacioppe, R. and Waters-Marsh, T., 001, Organisational Behaviour Learning and managing in Australia and New Zealand, (rd Edition), Prentice Hall, French Forest.

1. Sambell, Kay and McDowell, L., December-18, ¡§The construction of the hidden curriculum Messages and Meanings in the assessment of student learning¡¨, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. , Issue 4, p1-40.

1. Scheuer, S., 000, Social and economic Motivation at Work Theories of Motivation Reassessed, Copenhagen Business School Press, Denmark.

14. Sorenson, R. L., Savage, G. T. and Larry, D., 1, ¡§Motivating students to improve business writing A comparison between goal-based and punishment-based grading systems¡¨, The Journal of Business Communication, Urbana, Vol. 0, Issue , p11-15.

15. Young, P T., 161, Motivation and Emotion A survey of the determinants of human and animal activity, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

Please note that this sample paper on Motivation in an Educational context is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Motivation in an Educational context, we are here to assist you.Your cheap research papers on Motivation in an Educational context will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Tampa, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Tampa paper at affordable prices !This paper attempts to explore the judgements and issues arising from the Tampa affair that took place in September 001.The Government's decision to deny entry of the MV Tampa into Australian territory raised several debated concerns both nationally and internationally.Despite the Government's constant re-iteration of the concept of the protection of national sovereignty, these constitutional issues argued in the Federal Court, primarily concerned the legality of the steps the government took in dealing with the situation.The two main issues in dispute werewhat is the scope of the executive's power to exclude, expel, and detain 'aliens'? And if so, has such power been abrogated by legislation? In looking at the role of prerogatives and analysing the Federal Court's decision, we will be able to answer these questions, and establish why there was a division amongst the court on these issues.

In response to a request by the Australian Coast Guard, a Norwegian carrier ship, the MV Tampa rescued 4 from a sinking fishing boat.After mounting concerns that the rescuees were ill, the rescuees were taken to Nauru and New Zealand after they were denied entry into Australian territory.This was to initially determine whether the rescuees would be entitled to protection as refugees, despite that the Migration Act 158 (Cth) could regulate the "entry, presence, departure and deportation of non-citizens." The Act also permitted and empowered officers to board and search shipsand also conferred on the Government powers to detain and remove unlawful citizens .The argument presented by the Victorian Council for Civil Liberties (VCCL) in the initial hearing heard by North J, was that the rescuees were unlawfully detained and sought relief on the grounds of habeas corpus to release the rescuees from detention.The VCCL argued that the Governments acts resulted in a total restraint on the freedom of the rescuees as they were detained on board the vessel .In the initial hearing North J concluded that the Migration Act was intended to regulate the whole area of removal of aliens, and leaves no exercise of any prerogative power on the subject .However, the judgement was over turned on appeal after the immediate subsequent passing of the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth).

Role of Prerogatives

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Prerogative powers are the common law powers of the Crown ultimately derived from the Queen.They are fundamental for Australia to function as a sovereign nation with the Commonwealth inheriting all the prerogatives powers of the Queen Davis v Commonwealth.The role of prerogatives is to allow the executive to make decisions which are in the nation's best interest without any statutory authority.S61 of the Constitution provides the executive with this discretionary power

"The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested on the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-general as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and the laws of the Commonwealth."

However, the scope of the Executive's power is not exhaustive and the Executive must function within the powers conferred to it by the Constitution.In addition, the Executive is further limited as Parliament can limit or extinguish prerogative power by statute.

The Executive's Scope and Power of the Prerogative to Exclude, Expel and Detain Unlawful Non-Citizens

In the initial hearing heard in the Federal Court, North J presiding alone held that the prerogative powers did not extend to the detainment and expulsion of non-citizens. His honour considered matter by way of habeas corpus, stressing the need for statutory authority as the basis for any detention if any right to habeas corpus is to be abrogated. In addition, his honour examined the lack of historical evidence as did Barton J in Robtelmes v Brenan

"There are dicta of Blackstone and Chitty to the effect that the Crown by its prerogative can expel even alien friends; but there does not seem to have been any attempt since the revolution to exercise such prerogative, and the extrusion of alien friends has since then always been effected by statutory authority."

In concluding his finding, his honour found that the exclusion, expulsion and detainment of unlawful non-citizens was not a legitimate exercise of the prerogative.

On appeal, Black CJ dissented against the majority and adopted a similar view to North J, stating that such power must stem from statutory authority and that the executive's power is not unlimited

"No executive authority, apart from that conferred by statute, to subject anyone in Australia, citizen or non-citizen to detention."

His honour also based his ruling on lack of historical evidence

"A long period of disuse extinguishes the prerogative, because it would be illusory to say that parliament has, in such circumstances, made the choice to leave the prerogative in the Crown's hands."

His honour finds it clear that the lack of a modern existence and exercise of the power, infers that the power is deemed invalid, hence the scope is limited.

In conclusion his honour affirms that it is doubtful that asserted prerogative continues to exist at common law

"Parliament intended that in the field of exclusion, entry and expulsion of aliens the Act should operate to the exclusion of any executive power derived otherwise than from powers conferred by Parliament."

In contrast, the majority ruling of Beaumont and French JJ clearly shows a strong agreement that there was a prerogative power that extended to the exclusion, expulsion and detainment of unlawful non-citizens.French J begins his judgment with a quote from Zines

"At the time of federation and the early years of the Commonwealth it seems to have been assumed that a number of the common law prerogatives of the Crown such as the power to declare war, enter treaties or acquire territories, were not subsumed in S 61 but remained with the Crown to be exercised upon the advice of Imperial Ministers."

He then goes on to state his basic underlying principle for his reasoning

"The scope of the executive power conferred by S61 of the Constitution is to be measured by reference to Australia's status as a sovereign nation and by reference to the terms of the Constitution itself."

His honour interprets S61 with a broad view, in that the Executive has an unlimited power to do what is in the nation's best interest.He concedes that when assessing the scope of S61, one must look to how it applies to the maintenance of the constitution.Thus, it can be concluded that S61 applies to the purpose of the constitution.

French J then continues his argument by stating

"The power to determine who may come into Australia is so central to its sovereignty that it is not to be supposed that the Government of the nation would lack under the power conferred upon it directly by Constitution, the ability to prevent people not part of the Australian community, from entering."

Again, his honour reiterates the idea of the nation's sovereignty and the nature of its importance.

In conclusion, his honour states that the steps taken were within the scope of Executive power, and that the task of the court is to decide whether the power exists, not whether it was exercised wisely and well.

In his judgement, Beaumont J agrees with French J claiming that the primary judge (North J) in the initial judgement unsuitably approached the issue and instead of addressing the issue of the scope of executive power, the "primary judge should have inquired whether at common law (habeas corpus being a common law remedy) there was a legal right in the occupants to enter Australia.If his Honour had asked this question, it would, in accordance with the settled course of authority, have been answered in the negative."

His honour then proceeds to affirm the relevant course of authority of Musgrove v Toy [181] AC 7 where the Privy Council held that apart from statute, an alien has no legal right to enforceable by action to enter Victoria. His Honour again re-instated the point by looking at Lord Atkinson's judgement in Attorney-General (Canada) v Cain [106] AC 54 (at 547)

"One of the rights possessed by the supreme power in every state is the right to refuse to permit an alien to enter that state…Vattel, Law of Nations, book 1, s1; book , s15."

Finally Beaumont concludes that "The occupants had no legal right at common law enforceable in a court to enter Australia.It must follow in my view, that no foundation existed for the grant of a common law prerogative of a writ of habeas corpus compelling their entry into Australia."

It can be seen that the majority judgement re-enforces the notion that Australia's sovereignty is undermined if Australia is not allowed to decide who enters its borders.Beaumont and French JJ seem take the view that S61 is immensely fundamental and that the entire issue of parliamentary sovereignty is undermined. However it can also be concluded from this view that the majority's argument does not look strong if such prerogative powers can be enacted which are so grossly outdated.The cases that Beaumont J seeks to rely upon are old and arguably obsolete, which also can be seen as undermining parliamentary sovereignty.

Thus it seems that the minority judgement is more preferable.Both Black CJ and North J recognise that such an exercise of the prerogative can exist, however the scope of S61 limits the power conferred upon the Executive to not only deal with the detainment of non-citizens, but most issues concerning national sovereignty and what is in the nations best interest.However, it can also be argued that legislation dealing the regulation of prerogative power was enacted literally, to prevent the 'abuse' and 'misuse' of the power, thus the notion that the ruling majority judges seem to have found of unlimited executive power is severely questioned.

To What Extent has any such Power Been Abrogated by Legislation?

Even if the prerogative did once exist, it seems clear the power has been abrogated by the Migration Act 158 (Cth).In his ruling North J argued that the scope of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) replaced any likelihood for the prerogative to be exercised in this area.By looking at the purpose of the act expressed in S4, the dissenting judges found that the clear intention of the act was to regulate the presence and entry on non-citizens in Australia as it is in the nation's best interest.Black CJ stated the purpose of the Act as being "to regulate, in the national interest, the coming into, and presence in, Australia of non-citizens".Thus it can be construed, that the purpose of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) along with the Border Protection Legislation Amendment Act 1 (Cth) shows thatParliament intended the law, to clearly state whom it seeks to exclude from Australia and is highly unlikely that there be such a continuation of the exercise of the prerogative power.

French and Beaumont JJ also looked at the purpose of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) but found that the abrogation of the prerogative was not expressly stated in a provision of the Act. Thus, since Parliament did not intend to abrogate the prerogative, their honours held that there was a valid exercise of the Commonwealth's power under S61 of the Constitution; hence the Commonwealth did not unlawfully detain the rescuees.

Therefore, it can be seen that the minority judgement is again preferable.It seems reasonably clear Parliament has 'covered the field' and has intended to regulate in detail the topic of expulsion, exclusion and detainment of unlawful non-citizens.In addition, it is clear that if legislation is enacted that covers a prerogative, then that prerogative should no longer be deemed to be in existence.

The Legislative Response to the Tampa Litigation

In a response to the Tampa litigation, the government was quick to pass the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth).The purpose of the bill included new and amended provisions of the Customs Act 101 to allow the interception, detainment and expulsion of persons attempting to enter Australia without Visas.The justification for the passing of the bill can arguably be seen as the Government's backing of the key statement behind Prime Minister Howard's electoral campaign, "Every nation has the right to effectively control its borders and to decide who comes here and under what circumstances, and Australia has no intention of surrendering or compromising that right."

Thus, the Government was able to pass the bill without any legal scrutiny, as Mr Howard argued it was necessary to legislate against further possibilities of illegal encounters into Australian territory.In justifying the passing of the bill, Mr Howard stated that its purpose was to ensure that the Executive determine who comes into Australia and under what circumstances "The protection of our sovereignty, including Australia's sovereign right to determine who shall enter Australia is a matter for the Australian government and this parliament."Consequently, the Executive was to be removed from any judicial review and oversight.

However, it seems clear that the bill was only a legislative response to Tampa litigation and the problems for the executive that arose from it. But for the passing of the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth), the issue of the legality of the Government's steps it took in dealing with the rescuees aboard the Tampa would have been reviewed and clearly found illegal due to legislation (Migration Act 158 (Cth)) that arguably expressly dealt with the issue.Thus, it can be inferred that the Government was clearly unconcerned with the existence of the prerogative.Consequently, the Government's recklessness in dealing with the situation caused it to act immediately without considering the possible legal repercussions.

Conclusion

The Tampa litigation is a highly controversial and debatable issue and it is not surprising that the Court was divided on the issue.Despite the ruling judgement, the finding of the minority seems to be more persuasive.It seems unambiguously clear that parliament intended the issue to be governed by statute as the purpose of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) expressly dealt with it, thus the executive did not have the scope of the prerogative power to detain the rescuees aboard the Tampa.However, several other contentious issues arose from the litigation - we are forced to review the Federal Court and its decision to agree with the government on the issue, as the effect of the court's decision was to pass a bill that arguably already existed.Arguably, the role of the judiciary is to keep the government under control, and even though the decision of the court can be seen to reflect public opinion, it is not the court's role to undemocratically side with the government because of public opinion. Finally, we see the beginning of the erosion of a fundamental doctrine, the separation of powers, as the government chose to act indecisively, consequently strengthening the executive's power.As clearly shown, the purpose of the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth) was to exempt the executive from consequent judicial review.

"It is said that difficult cases make bad law" and the Tampa litigation is dubiously no exception to this statement.The Judiciary should not have to continuously justify the Executive's actions and decisions, as this will only also result in a continuos erosion of the separation of powers.More so, the court should not have to continuously rule alongside the Executive, but should work towards resolving the imbalance of Executive power, which potentially looks like a contentious issue that will arise in the near future.

Bibliography

Castan, Melissa & Joseph, Dr Sarah, Federal Constitutional Law A Contemporary View Sydney Lawbook Co. 001

Zines, L. The High Court and the Constitution (4th Ed.) Sydney Butterworths (17)

Evans, Dr. Simon "The Rule of Law, Constitutionalism and the MV Tampa" v.1 Public Law Review, 4 at 7 (00)

Pringle, Helen & Thompson, Dr Elaine, "The Tampa Affair and the Role of the Australian Parliament" v.1 Public law Review 18 (00)

Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives ( August 001), p0516

Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, Second Reading Speech ( August 001), p056

Cases and Legislation

Attorney-General (Canada) v Cain [106] AC 54

Davis v Commonwealth (188) 166 CLR 7

Musgrove v Toy [181] AC 7

Robtelmes v Brenan (106) 4 CLR 5

Ruddock v Valdaris (001) 110 FCR 41

Victorian Council for Civil Liberties Inc v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (001) 100 FCR 45

Customs Act 101 (Cth)

Migration Act 158 (Cth)

Border Protection Legislation Amendment Act 1 (Cth)

Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth)

Please note that this sample paper on Tampa is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Tampa, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Tampa will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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README.TXT - January 2000

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Trellix Web Version 2.6

All software and materials copyright 1998-2000 by Trellix (R)

Corporation. Trellix is a registered trademark, and Trellix Web

is a trademark of Trellix Corporation (www.trellix.com).

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Setting Up One-Step Publish (TM)

Trellix Web lets you set up "One-Step Publish" so that you can

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To begin, choose File - Publish Web Site.

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with a hosting company, you can set one up online. (To do this

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browser -- in other words you must have an Internet Service

Provider, or ISP -- but you do not have to have a web site.)

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Updating Your Software

After you obtain your copy of Trellix Web, it is very likely that

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and Downloads and follow the instructions on the screen.

To get the latest Trellix Web Gems, choose Tools - Web Gems and

then click Upgrade. Follow the instructions that appear.

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Using Images From Scanners and Digital Cameras

Some versions of Trellix Web let you include images

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TWAIN interface. If you have questions, check the list of

certified devices on our support web site at

http://support.trellix.com/ .

- This special menu item appears only when the TWAIN interface

has been installed. Some versions of Trellix Web may not

contain it.

More information on this feature can be found in the file called

TLXTWAIN.HLP.

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Adjusting Printer Options

Trellix Web lets you print your web site file. To do so, choose

File - Print.

- You can adjust printer-specific options, such as orientation

and paper size, by choosing File - Print and then clicking

the Properties button.

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breaks, footnotes with link information, headers, and footers,

by choosing File - Page Setup.

For more information, see the Trellix Web Help file.

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Known Problems

Visitors to your web site(s) who are using Netscape Navigator on

a computer display set to 256 colors may see inaccurate colors

due to a known Netscape bug. Sites created with the following web

designs may display differently than they appeared to you:

Teal Surf

Basic (all shapes)

If you expect your visitors to be using Navigator with this

display level, do not base your sites on these designs.

The Print toolbar button prints "all pages" in the current file.

To print only selected pages in the current file, choose

File - Print from the menu.

When you add Weather Web Gems to your web site, be sure to place

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Trellix Web Wizard

The fastest way to create a web site using Trellix Web, is to

start with our Web Wizard. You can choose it from the Start Using

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At the end of the wizard, you will be able to publish your site,

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Learning About Trellix Web

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Guided Tour

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Once downloaded, choose it from the Start Using Trellix Web

dialog box, or choose Help - Guided Tour.

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Answers the question, "What is involved in getting my site

posted? What is a web hosting company and why do I need one?

Can be chosen at startup, or at the end of the Web Wizard, or

by choosing Help - All About Web Publishing.

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Answers the question, "I'm not ready to do my own site, but

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from scratch (not using the Web Wizard) using Trellix Web."

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Available at all times. Press F1 or choose Help - Help Topics.

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Available when you are adding a Web Gem.

Choose Tools - Web Gems and then click Help. More information

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Trellix Web Site

Tutorials, a comprehensive knowledge base, online chat

sessions, Tips of the Day, and much more are available for

registered customers. You can decide whether you'd like to

receive mail from us.

Choose Help - Technical Support or Help - Training, or browse

to http://support.trellix.com/.

Some of these commands are only available from menus when you

have a file open; if the Trellix Web window is empty, they are

not available.

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Tips & Techniques

If you are working on the Hands-on Tutorial, and you dismiss the

Tutorial Help and want to recall it, the best procedure is:

(1) Use the Windows Explorer to navigate to the directory where

Trellix Web software was installed. This is often

C:/Program Files/Trellix Web/program

If not, it will be some directory with "Trellix Web/program"

after it.

(2) Double-click on WebTutorial.hlp.

(3) Close Explorer and continue with the Tutorial.

If you received Trellix Web on a CD-ROM, your CD-ROM contains

additional images that may be of use as you create Web sites.

The "Extras" folder contains a "Buttons and Bitmaps" folder,

which contains all the images used to create our designs.

Your CD-ROM also contains a copy of the Trellix Web Guided Tour.

You can copy it to the directory where Trellix Web software was

installed and then choose it from the Start Using Trellix Web

dialog box or by choosing Help - Guided Tour. To copy it, the best

procedure is:

(1) Use the Windows Explorer to navigate to your CD-ROM and to

the Extras directory that holds the Guided Tour.

(2) Copy the file, GuidedTour.exe to the directory where Trellix

Web software was installed. This is often

C:/Program Files/Trellix Web/program

(3) Close Explorer and choose Help - Guided Tour or choose Guided

Tour from the Start Using Trellix Web dialog box.

If your C: drive is smaller than 3 gigabytes, the Guided Tour

should run without problems. If your C: drive is larger than 3

gigabytes (total space), you will see an error message saying

that the C:Temp folder can't be found. After this message, the

Guided Tour will run with some navigational images missing.

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End of file - last edited 12 January 2000

Trellix Web (TM)

README.TXT - January 2000

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Trellix Web Version 2.6

All software and materials copyright 1998-2000 by Trellix (R)

Corporation. Trellix is a registered trademark, and Trellix Web

is a trademark of Trellix Corporation (www.trellix.com).

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Setting Up One-Step Publish (TM)

Trellix Web lets you set up "One-Step Publish" so that you can

easily publish and update any number of web sites with a single

command.

To begin, choose File - Publish Web Site.

Each copy of Trellix Web is automatically connected to one or

more web hosting companies. If you do not already have an account

with a hosting company, you can set one up online. (To do this

you must already have a way to access the Internet using a web

browser -- in other words you must have an Internet Service

Provider, or ISP -- but you do not have to have a web site.)

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Updating Your Software

After you obtain your copy of Trellix Web, it is very likely that

Trellix will form additional relationships with partner companies

and add new features that you may want to use. To add the latest

features and partnerships to your software, choose Help - Updates

and Downloads and follow the instructions on the screen.

To get the latest Trellix Web Gems, choose Tools - Web Gems and

then click Upgrade. Follow the instructions that appear.

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Using Images From Scanners and Digital Cameras

Some versions of Trellix Web let you include images

directly from scanners and digital cameras that support

the TWAIN interface. To do this,

choose Insert - Scanner or Digital Camera Image.

- Not all TWAIN devices have been certified for use with our

TWAIN interface. If you have questions, check the list of

certified devices on our support web site at

http://support.trellix.com/ .

- This special menu item appears only when the TWAIN interface

has been installed. Some versions of Trellix Web may not

contain it.

More information on this feature can be found in the file called

TLXTWAIN.HLP.

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Adjusting Printer Options

Trellix Web lets you print your web site file. To do so, choose

File - Print.

- You can adjust printer-specific options, such as orientation

and paper size, by choosing File - Print and then clicking

the Properties button.

- You can adjust Trellix-specific print options, such as page

breaks, footnotes with link information, headers, and footers,

by choosing File - Page Setup.

For more information, see the Trellix Web Help file.

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Known Problems

Visitors to your web site(s) who are using Netscape Navigator on

a computer display set to 256 colors may see inaccurate colors

due to a known Netscape bug. Sites created with the following web

designs may display differently than they appeared to you:

Teal Surf

Basic (all shapes)

If you expect your visitors to be using Navigator with this

display level, do not base your sites on these designs.

The Print toolbar button prints "all pages" in the current file.

To print only selected pages in the current file, choose

File - Print from the menu.

When you add Weather Web Gems to your web site, be sure to place

them in the page body and not in the border of the page. The

inserted Weather Gem is too big to fit well in the standard-sized

border.

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Trellix Web Wizard

The fastest way to create a web site using Trellix Web, is to

start with our Web Wizard. You can choose it from the Start Using

Trellix Web screen, or choose File - New and then select the Web

Wizard from the list of available templates.

At the end of the wizard, you will be able to publish your site,

or enhance it further. A quick list of commonly used features will

guide you in finishing the site. To get the most out of Trellix

Web, we also recommend that you use the learning options

described in the next section.

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Learning About Trellix Web

This document contains notes on using Trellix Web that supplement

the Trellix Web online documentation. For more general information

on using Trellix Web, see:

Guided Tour

Answers the question, "What can I do with Trellix Web?"

Available for download by choosing

Help - Updates & Downloads.

Once downloaded, choose it from the Start Using Trellix Web

dialog box, or choose Help - Guided Tour.

All About Publishing to the Web

Answers the question, "What is involved in getting my site

posted? What is a web hosting company and why do I need one?

Can be chosen at startup, or at the end of the Web Wizard, or

by choosing Help - All About Web Publishing.

Hands-on Tutorial

Answers the question, "I'm not ready to do my own site, but

I'd like to see the steps involved in creating a small site

from scratch (not using the Web Wizard) using Trellix Web."

Can be chosen at startup, or by choosing

Help - Hands-on Tutorial.

Trellix Web Help

Available at all times. Press F1 or choose Help - Help Topics.

Trellix Web Gem Help

Available when you are adding a Web Gem.

Choose Tools - Web Gems and then click Help. More information

about individual Trellix Web Gems can also be found online at

http://support.trellix.com/webgems/.

Trellix Web Site

Tutorials, a comprehensive knowledge base, online chat

sessions, Tips of the Day, and much more are available for

registered customers. You can decide whether you'd like to

receive mail from us.

Choose Help - Technical Support or Help - Training, or browse

to http://support.trellix.com/.

Some of these commands are only available from menus when you

have a file open; if the Trellix Web window is empty, they are

not available.

-----------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Tips & Techniques

If you are working on the Hands-on Tutorial, and you dismiss the

Tutorial Help and want to recall it, the best procedure is:

(1) Use the Windows Explorer to navigate to the directory where

Trellix Web software was installed. This is often

C:/Program Files/Trellix Web/program

If not, it will be some directory with "Trellix Web/program"

after it.

(2) Double-click on WebTutorial.hlp.

(3) Close Explorer and continue with the Tutorial.

If you received Trellix Web on a CD-ROM, your CD-ROM contains

additional images that may be of use as you create Web sites.

The "Extras" folder contains a "Buttons and Bitmaps" folder,

which contains all the images used to create our designs.

Your CD-ROM also contains a copy of the Trellix Web Guided Tour.

You can copy it to the directory where Trellix Web software was

installed and then choose it from the Start Using Trellix Web

dialog box or by choosing Help - Guided Tour. To copy it, the best

procedure is:

(1) Use the Windows Explorer to navigate to your CD-ROM and to

the Extras directory that holds the Guided Tour.

(2) Copy the file, GuidedTour.exe to the directory where Trellix

Web software was installed. This is often

C:/Program Files/Trellix Web/program

(3) Close Explorer and choose Help - Guided Tour or choose Guided

Tour from the Start Using Trellix Web dialog box.

If your C: drive is smaller than 3 gigabytes, the Guided Tour

should run without problems. If your C: drive is larger than 3

gigabytes (total space), you will see an error message saying

that the C:Temp folder can't be found. After this message, the

Guided Tour will run with some navigational images missing.

------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------

End of file - last edited 12 January 2000

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Anti-Abortion

If you order your essay from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Anti-Abortion. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Anti-Abortion paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Anti-Abortion, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Anti-Abortion paper at affordable prices!Anti-Abortion The Fight for Life

Since the Darwinian Revolution of the 1th century, our society has turned upside down. Everything under the sun has become questionable, the origin of life, how we came to be, and where are we headed.But one of the greatest impacts of this new age thinking is its effect on our Old World values.Western societies values, morals and ethics have become debatable, with some people striving for change and others clinging for stability.Battle lines have been drawn and the Liberals and Conservatives were ready to duke it out on a number of issues.One of these debates centers on a woman's right to have an abortion.

According to the Webster's dictionary an abortion is defined as a miscarriage, something misshapen or unnatural.It further defines an abortion as a procedure in which an embryo or fetus is prohibited from developing by artificial means, which one could argue that this is next to murder.The question is how can we as a society sanction the murdering of developing babies?

It can equally be stated that abortion is unnatural and a health hazard to women who have undergone the procedure.Whatever the case, abortion should be outlawed because it is immoral and mothers should face the responsibilities of their actions.Many arguments have been used in order to put an end to abortion or at least in order to establish dialogue, and one of the oldest arguments against abortion is the religious standpoint.

Buy custom Anti-Abortion term paper

In recent times we have become an increasingly purist society the Old World thinking is still at the heart of our social relations and laws.The Bible says, "Thou shalt not kill" thus prohibiting people from harming others or themselves.Abortion and its advocates violate this law.They seek to change one of the most fundamental values of our society.Pro-choice under this stance is equated with murder and "playing God".Pro-choice may raise the question, how can a minority inflict its views on the majority? According to Francis X. Meenan, this is a false assumption.He actually claims that those who favor abortion on demand are the real minority (Bender & Leone, 7).Meena further points out that the issue of abortion is a moral debate and cannot be settled by numbers.So even if pro-choice advocates outnumbered pro-life advocates, this would prove or settle nothing (7).This stance claims that we should focus more on moral principals and eradicate the practice of abortion in our society.The Biblical understanding of life is not the only religious argument that opposes abortion and its practice. Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and many other world faiths have a similar stance on abortion.Hinduism claims that the soul enters the embryo at the time of conception and abortion should hence be outlawed except in the case of rape or incest.Buddhism takes a similar stance and claims abortion is "murdering", it also states that each case should be individually analyzed.Islam considers abortion as a moral crime and sees life (its start and finish) as the jurisdiction of God.Islamic law states that abortion is illegal except in those situations in which the woman's life is in jeopardy.The question that arises after examining these numerous perspectives is how can abortion, a practice that violates or threatens our fundamental beliefs, be tolerated?

The critics of the anti-abortion perspective, "pro-choice", have argued that biblical law and its perspectives are codes of life for believers and in a pluralistic society this view shouldn't be a reference or a deciding factor.One could imagine how it would be to have another foreign view imposed on us so why would anyone impose their views on others or the society at large?Other pro-choice arguments have gone on to claim that abortion is not immoral because morality is subjective hence people decide on their own what is moral or immoral.According to Daniel C. Maguire, even religious people can disagree on abortion. Bender and Leone claim that religion is against abortion because the church is dominated by male influence (101). Maguire wants to know how and why men have the authority to dictate what women decide to do with their bodies and asks is it "life" they seek to protect or is it the female "sexuality" they wish to control? (101) The Catholic Code of Canon excommunicates one for aborting a fertilized egg, but not for killing a baby after birth.This hypocrisy thus discredits the religious argument against abortion.The counter-criticism, which in turn disproves of abortion claims that advocates of pro-choice are imposing their values on the greater population and not the other way around.In my opinion this is a good counter-strike because too often pro-choice individuals claim that the other side is being closed minded and yet seem to neglect their own errors.But there must be a line drawn at some point.People are not allowed to murder other people because it is wrong.This is all a basic example of knowing right from wrong.The law that states that you are not allowed to murder people came from a religious stand point many years ago, but did people argue that it is not right to make up such a law and force someone's beliefs in what is right and wrong on others?No.So, how does this situation differ from any other?America was founded on religious beliefs.Many other practices in America are based on religion and the morals that are involved in religious practice whether "pro-choicers" believe it or not.Pro-life simply states that abortion is wrong for the same reason our four fathers stated that murder of other human beings is wrong.

Abortion is murder; there should be no argument to that.I find it ironic that most pro-choice people are against the death penalty and angrily call it, "cold blooded murder."This is not to get off the subject, but to give a comparison.Many pro-life people also oppose the death penalty.I find it impossible to understand how someone who is pro-choice can staunchly protest the right of a woman to abort an innocent baby and yet become enraged if the state executes a guilty killer?While the morality of capital punishment is debatable, and in rare occasions an innocent person might be executed, 100% of abortions result in the death of truly innocent lives.Regardless of your position on the death penalty, it is important to recognize that if a criminal is executed, he is at least guilty of something terrible i.e. murder.A baby, however, is guilty of nothing, and is similarly terminated through abortion.Abortion is a premeditated act on part of the mother to end the life of the living baby inside her womb.Murder is also premeditated act on part of one individual to take an innocent person's life.

Another argument, which opposes abortion, states that abortion should not be a woman's personal choice.Women only play one role in having a baby.There is a man's role involved and there is a new life, which under the banner of abortion would be extinguished.A pro-abortionist denies humanity to the fetus at all, a stance that shows a lack of moral character (Wennberg, 57). This perspective states that the growing fetus is an autonomous life form that has its own rights regardless and separate of the woman. I would argue that females who have undergone an abortion have infringed on the life of another human being in order to satisfy their own needs.Abortion is an incredibly selfish act on the part of a woman.Not only are they killing an innocent child and stealing its chance for a beautiful life, but she is also stealing another person the chance of a having a child other than herself.

Other arguments opposing abortion state that if we keep abortion legal it will become a choice ethic or a new form of birth control (Wennberg, ).From this point, life will be a privilege only for a chosen few, the value of human life will be cheapened with people only having babies when it is convenient.Critics of this argument that claim abortion should be a woman's personal choice.They state that true woman's liberation is intertwined with the right to bear children or the decision to abort their unborn child at will (Saarni, 104). So is this what women burned their bras for in the 60's?To be able to kill their unborn child?The way I interpret this argument is that a woman has the right to decide whether or not another human being should be allowed to live just because she carries the human.This defiantly is a "playing God" role.If we are to go as far to state that, then what's to stop us from giving the mother the same right after the child has been born.One day the mother decides the child isn't convenient so she decided to kill it.I realize this is ridiculous, but that is what this argument states.Further claims have stated that the pro-choice argument is embedded in a larger issue which the dominant male-oriented society wants to avoid, that being feminism (Wennberg, 68).According to feminist, this statement regards abortion as a social issue, which opens the doors for women's liberation and gives them power to make decisions in their own life.And as one could imagine this is not a view that would be favored by male society.Once again, is this what women were fighting for when they fought for their liberation?I think not.Ask any woman from that time if this is what she wanted the future generation to turn their hard work of fighting for women's rights into, the right to kill their child.Other criticism claims that women who are opposed to abortion do so because they value human well-being and those politicians who seek to outlaw abortion come in the name of "family values" (Saarni, 115).Thus pro-choice isn't seen as a stance that is concerned, about the well being of people.

In a quest to establish a woman's choice the government is viewed as a powerful entity."Perhaps the issue of choice should be left to the individual instead of the state," says Wennberg (8).In my opinion the right to bear children or not should not be just a woman's decision.Why must women's liberation be related to her independent choice and not with a socially intellectual choice where all parties find a middle ground?The statement that the abortion argument is a part of a larger sphere, which includes feminism and that the powers that be are trying to put an end to this, is based on speculation.If this were true why is it that women have gained power all across the board in all walks of life only to be oppressed in this issue?Abortion affects society as a whole, not just the woman.One independent woman shouldn't have the power to make a decision that will affect society.Women who seek the well being for life naturally side up with the pro-life perspective.To claim that politicians with their own personal agendas are manipulating these women is saying that these women value life alongside their male counter parts and that is the reasoning why many strive towards pro-life.

The argument that legal abortion harms public health is yet another reason to re-evaluate the case of abortion.The fact is that abortion is a complicated procedure that can harm a woman's body, disabling her from bearing children.Complications include hemorrhaging and laceration of the cervix (Richardson, 6).Other studies done by Stallworthy, Moolga, Oker and Walsh have reported the complications that occurred during 1,18 legal abortions.While there have been no deaths reported, .5% of the patients required blood transfusions, 4.% had cervical lacerations and 1.% of the patients uteri were perforated.Post-abortion infection occurred in 7% of these women.Other complications in pregnancy and with abortions state that there is a correlation between pre-mature birth and a woman's exposure to abortion (Richardson, 4).This perhaps has to do with the fact that the cervix could be damaged after the use of instruments to perform abortion (Richardson, 4).In my opinion abortion decreases public health and is a dangerous procedure.Pro-choice argues that abortion actually guards public safety by providing an outlet for young women who would have otherwise had a "back alley" abortion (Richardson, 57).Advocates of this argument would most likely state that since the legalization of abortion an account of accurate records has been kept thus catering to health concerns.Other statements claim that since 17 the number of women, percentage wise, who are using safer methods, has increased (Richardson, 51).Most pro-choice people usually dont want to hear the facts. Deep down they realize to fully face the truth about abortion, and how disgusting it really is, might cause them to be persuaded it is evil, so many shut their ears. The following is a brief description of two common abortion methods.Abortions performed during the first 1 weeks are done with a suction machine that is 5 times more powerful than a vacuum cleaner. (Weldon, 8)The power of the vacuum tears the body of the fetus apart, limb by limb until all that remains is the tiny head.If the head is too large to be suctioned the abortionist inserts forceps into the uterus to crush the skull so it can be suction out as well. (Weldon, 8)Lest you think the fetus isnt fully developed at this stage in the womb, an 8-week-old fetus has all the same organs and body parts of a baby that has been born. Abortions performed between the fourth and inserting forceps and clamping them onto arms and legs do eighth month. The abortionist twists off body parts piece by piece and yanks them out.It is scientifically proven that babies in the womb feel pain. (Weldon, )In fact, the intensity of pain experienced by both a fetus and a baby istimes higher than a child or adult.If a cannibalistic killer kidnapped your baby and ripped her apart limb by limb wouldnt you be shocked and horrified?Then why don't doctors who have performed thousands of abortions in their lives horrify people?In my personal opinion pro-life arguments simply state how legalized abortion has reduce the black market.It does not attempt to debate on the ethics of the matter, or doesn't mention the risk factor associated with abortion.I am sure military force monitoring our cities could reduce crime, yet is this solution, which serves the best interest? To argue that society is better off with legalized abortion because it reduces the black market is not a very good solution.It is a decision that is poor, unethical, and most of all a tremendous health hazard.This pro-choice argument doesn't even mention the huge amount of couples that are barren and seek to adopt.This argument jumps straight to the conclusion that it is better to kill an unborn child rather than search for alternative, better options.Hundreds of couples are put on waiting lists daily to adopt.These are people who actually want a child.

Another argument, which is often cited as a justification for abortion, is one's economic concerns.Many women who get pregnant but are poor are the first to get an abortion.It seems like the struggles of modern life creates an obstacle for those women, and a child becomes a burden (Saarni, 17).Is this what our society has come to?Is this the condition of our mothers?It seems like more and more women are redirected towards abortion as a solution to their problems.Human life now comes with a price tag and it is no longer regarded as sacred but is seen as a disposable entity when, "the going gets tough".Society no longer values life and is willing to, or demanding that women, especially poor or black women control the number of babies they have or the government will control it for them (Saarni, 4).The critics take the other stance and claim that economics is one of the most important reasons we should keep legal abortions.Legal abortions provide an avenue for underprivileged women who cannot support another child in this world.They claim that abortion is in the best interest for the mother, child and the taxpayers (Saarni, ).They also claim that abortion services are an equalizer, which maintain low birth rates amongst today's women.This means that women use abortion as a method of birth control, which enables them to remain independent, carry out a career, and live a free-spirited life (Saarni, 0).Once again, pro-choice never even offers the suggestion of adoption and letting the child live.I personally believe that economics is not a good reason to abort a life.If one cannot afford to bring a life into this world then they ought to take all necessary precautions to make sure one will not get pregnant.I do not think abortion is in the best interest of anyone but the selfish mother who has willingly destroyed the life of an unborn baby.

Finally, it is a shame if modern women feel that abortion is some sort of birth control.It is unfortunate that life is not valued like it once was and that independence and financial gain have become the new objectives in life.It is perhaps this mentality to equate abortion with birth control in the guise of female liberation that is the most dangerous to traditional family values.The question is what does this say about us as a society when we begin to murder our own and then claim that we are modern and civilized?

In conclusion, abortion has many ominous consequences and shows how the very moral fiber of our society is disintegrating. Everyone agrees that it is wrong to deliberately hurt another person, whether physically, mentally, or emotionally.Abortion is an act contrary to love. It does the ultimate harm by killing a living being! A fetus in the womb feels pain in the same way a fully born baby does. The fetus heartbeat is stopped and depending on the type of abortion, its legs; arms, head, and body are torn to pieces. A woman who has an abortion is not acting in love. She is putting her own selfish needs (whether education, career, or financial) ahead of the baby in her womb.

It is a moral crime, a crime to the unborn child, a crime to society as a whole and therefore should be outlawed.

Work Cited

Bender, David L. & Leone Bruno.Abortion Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego

Greenhaven Press, 186.

Richardson, Erick.The Crime of Abortion.New York Prentice-Hall Inc., 18.

Saarni, Aaron.Abortion Risk Vs. Benefit.New York Oxford University Press, 10.

Weldon, John.The Facts on Abortion.New York Random House, 15.

Wennberg, Robert N.Life in the Balance Exploring the Abortion Controversy. Chicago

Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 185.

Please note that this sample paper on Anti-Abortion is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Anti-Abortion, we are here to assist you.Your persuasive essay on Anti-Abortion will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

Order your authentic assignmentand you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!