Third World Poverty

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ʑ Third World Poverty

" When we touch the sick and the needy, we touch the suffering body of Christ."

In the World we live in today, many things go unnoticed that really should be focussed

on to a greater degree.The history of Jesus Christ proves to Christians around theBuy Third World Poverty term paper

World that life in his time was much less complicated and people spent their time doing

things for others rather than concentrating on themselves.Contrary to that time, today

inTwenty First Century society, high tech advancements and technology have become

the focus of most of the population and many people have forgotten the importance of

lending a hand to someone who needs it.During Jesus' time, the people had very little,

yet they were able to help each other out better than citizen's today seem to.One

might believe that because of the booming technological advancements and economy

today, the needy people would be receiving more help during this era, but sadly this is

not the case.Yes, there is some aid to families of the Third World, but how much of

that are the governments issuing?If the governments are issuing funding, how much is

actually going to the direct necessities of the poor families, needs such as clean water,

and shelter?There are many issues that revolve around poverty, specifically Third

World poverty, but it is in analyzing these issues that will helplead to solving some of

the problems - one step at a time.These many issues range from understanding what

Third World poverty and absolute poverty is, where it occurs, what causes it, the

stereotypes of the poor people and how the Third World helps out the First World.

Third World poverty is poverty found in poor countries such as Mexico, Haiti,

South and East Asia and Africa, where families live in pitiful conditions, lacking food,

clean water and health care.Absolute poverty is a term which relates to more than one

fifth of the Third World population who live in "...conditions of life so characterized by

malnutrition, illiteracy, and disease as to be beneath any reasonable definition of

human decency."This definition of absolute poverty is how many people of the Third

World live and therefore it is easy to tell the degree of poverty in these countries.

The people affected by Third World poverty are those people living in the

countrieswhich are known for being poor.These people range in all ages, from new

born children to elders, but they all have one thing in common, they all suffer.No

matter what the age of someone suffering from poverty, each person lacks the

necessities of life.For a young child, they may not be fed the right amount of food

because their family barely has any and therefore it may affect them for the rest of their

life.The child could grow up with growth problems, protein and nutrient deficiencies

and malnutrition.For many middle aged children, education is sparse in poor nations,

and therefore they may not receive the proper education.Children may go to school

until they reach grade six or seven, and then be off to find farming jobs or stay at home

to help with chores.On the rare occasion a child might continue education in high

school, but that would only be in the circumstance of the family having enough money

to send the child to school, which infrequently occurs.For adults, jobs are hard to find

and therefore it is hard for parents to support their families and themselves.Health

care could be a major downfall for elders living in the Third World because medical

attention is very hard to find.If an elderly person became sick in a Third World

country, by the time a doctor was able to see them, the person would probably be too

sick for help.Age does not matter when the issue being discussed is poverty because

all people of the world deserve the same necessities of life, no matter how old they are.

There is one certain group within Third World countries who are treated very poorly

and receive unequal opportunity throughout life and this group is women." Women are

the Third World's powerhouse because they produce 60% of all food, run 70% of small

businesses and make up a third of the official labour force - in addition to caring for

families and homes.Although women do so much in the Third World, their status rarely

reflects their contributions as they get the raw deal in education, health services, equal

pay employment and access to land."This shows that women play a very important

and essential role in the developing nations, yet they are treated unfairly because of

their gender.

Third World poverty occurs in many areas of the world sadly enough.These

areas which poverty occurs are called developing countries and are countries located

mostly in South America, Africa and Asia.These are not the only areas of the world

that have poverty, but they are the areas where poverty is found.For the majority of

people, their awareness of poverty and its occurrences are in countries such as

Mexico, Guatemala, Haiti, India and Ethiopia.Inside the actual countries where the

poverty occurs, there are many different locations which the poor live in.The poor

people live in places ranging from city streets to mountain tops, with Shantytowns and

bare fields in between.Depending on the level of poverty that a person lives in, it

determines where they live.If a person is very poor and cannot afford anything, they

would probably build a hut on the top of a mountain and live off of what food they can

grow themselves.If a family is poor but the children go to school and the husband has

a low salary job, they probably would be able to afford living in a Shantytown or small

poor community.

People very seldom understand why the poor are so poor, but there are many

causes that once understood make a great deal of sense to the average person.There

are causes which lie within the actual people, things such as disabilities and not being

able to work because of having to stay home.All of these causes are directed at the

people because they are not something which countries put on them.Despite the fact

that some people cause their own poverty, the majority of poverty occurs because of

many fixable problems.A great amount of poverty arises because of politics and the

governments around the world.Although there may be wealthy nations in the world,

those governments often ignore the fact that there are people starving and dying in

their own countries." A lack of material wealth does not necessarily mean that one is

deprived.A strong economy in a developed nation doesn't mean much when a

significant percentage ( even a majority) of the population is struggling to survive.

Development usually implies an improvement in living standards such that a person

has enough food, water, clothing, stable social environment, freedom, equitable

ownership of land, basic rights etc, to have a fair chance for a decent life.However,

when political agendas deprive these possibilities in some nations, how can a nation

develop?Politics have led to dire conditions in many poorer nations.In many cases,

international political interests have led to a diversion of available resources from

domestic needs to western markets."As the above quote describes, a great deal of

poverty in Third World countries can be blamed on politics and the governments.

There is obviously a large problem when governments of First World nations know that

"...to satisfy all the world's sanitation and food requirements would cost only $1 billion,

hardly as mush as the people of the United States and the European Union spend each

year on perfume" yet the governments do nothing to inform people of these statistics

and try to make an effort to change this absurdity.Another large cause of Third World

poverty is called the Third World Debt Crisis and basically this is what the LDC's (less

developed countries)owe the First World.The Third World Debt Crisis outlines

statistics such as "... in 17, the total debt stock owed by the developing world to the

developed world was $.17 trillion, up from $1.4 trillion in 10.Each day, developing

countries pay the rich nations $717 million in debt service.Every baby born in the

developing world owes $48 at birth."These statistics from Third World Debt Crisis

show how poor the developing nations are, but even though they may receive some

funding and aid from rich nations, they have to put the money towards paying their way

out of debt.In other words, if a rich county gives a developing country money to help

out, the developing country would have to put that money towards paying back the

$717 million they owe per day to rich nations.This is another reason why the poor

people receive hardly any funding, and that is because when aid is sent over to poor

countries meant to go to impoverished families, it ends up being taken by the

governments because they are so desperate to pay back the debt they owe to the First

World.It is very important for people of First World countries to understand the real

reasons why the Third World is so poor because in today's society there are many

unfair judgements and stereotypes of poverty in the Third World.

Third World poverty is an issue that has become apparent to many First World

citizens, but there are still many stereotypes of the poor people and families which are

unjust.Some citizens believe that poor people "...are lazy and don't want to work, they

are so poor because they have too many kids and that the poor should have taken

advantage of the education offered to them because then they wouldn't be where they

are today."These are stereotypes which are heard of quite often and are not accurate

in reality.First, the poor people living in Third World countries are far from being lazy

as they live a much more demanding and physical life than the people of rich countries.

Second, people of LDC's have so many kids not because of mistakes, but because life

is so hard, the more children parents have the easier the workload will become as the

children get older.Lastly, many people living in poverty never receive the chance at

education because it is either too expensive, it is not offered to them or they had to

remain at home to help with household demands.No matter what the comment or

stereotype a person makes about poverty, most likely the person making the comment

has no real understanding of what life is really like for the poor and why the people live

the way they do.

Although there are many poor countries throughout the world, who owe

tremendous amounts of money to rich countries, the poor nations do help out the rich in

many ways.A Hershey Chocolate bar for example is made by many products that

come from the Third World."...the sugar might come from Latin America, cocoa beans

may be from Nigeria, Ghana or west Africa, the nuts in the bar could be from Sudan in

Africa and the fuel needed for the transportation of the bars probably comes from Third

World nations, because they provide 56% of the worlds oil."The Third World also

provides many rich countries with most of their coffee grains and other food products.

Needless to say, although the poor nations may not have a great deal of money, the

rich nations need to realize what the poor does for them and perhaps supply the needy

with more aid.

One might think that with so much proof of there being a great deal of poverty in

the world, that governments might do something to change it.So often people have

seen the US government put millions of dollars towards war and machinery to kill

people or the Canadian government spend millions of dollars on infrastructure and

technology.If the governments can spend so much money on material things, why cant

they spend money on feeding hungry people?Do the political leaders of the world

need more statistics to prove there is a large problem?There are many statistics to

determine there is a problem and all of them should be taken into consideration.

" Currently 1. billion people in the world live on less than $1.00 US a day, women

account for more than 70 percent of the world's poor, less than two percent of poor

people have access to financial services, more than 0 percent of the world population

growth is occurring in less developed regions and forty eight million children and

women are victims of war, natural disaster, extreme poverty and others forms of

violence and exploitation."All of these statistics are very disturbing as it is proof of the

levels of exploitation, helplessness and the need for something to be changed.

There is obviously a great deal of poverty in this world, but what is anyone doing

to change it?There are many groups around the globe that help fundraise money and

go to poor nations to help the needy, but obviously that is not enough.Much of the

problem lies in the hands of the governments because "people assume that

governments are interested in growth and development.But many government leaders

are interested mainly in personal aggrandizement and in helping their group over

another group."In order to change the poverty problems occurring around the globe,

many things will have to change, including the lifestyles of people living in rich

countries.It is unfair to have so many people living off of practically nothing and other

people make millions of dollars.The only real way to make a difference in this world is

for the people of rich nations to be educated about Third World poverty and for people

to change the way they live.If citizens of the First World would conserve water usage

and limit their waste, then many of the lives of people living in developing countries

could be enhanced.It is time for people to start living with compassion and love, that

includes citizens of the world and leaders of our governments, maybe then more lives

would be saved.

Please note that this sample paper on Third World Poverty is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Third World Poverty, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on Third World Poverty will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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IKEA

If you order your cheap essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on IKEA. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality IKEA paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in IKEA, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your IKEA paper at affordable prices

IKEA IN THE USA

I.Summary

IKEA is the world's largest furniture retailer, which specialized, standardized but in stylish, inexpensive Swedish design. Its fully owned store has 150 in 8 countries worldwide with sales of $7 billion (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). The company-pioneered move toward globalization in the furniture industry and perhaps one of the most successful multinational furniture retailing firms operating based its unique concept that furniture sold in kits that assembled by the customers at home. Furthermore, IKEA also gain advantages from its supplier worldwide through high-secured contract with high volume production that allowed selling its product in lower price (Groland Schoch, 17). The founder of IKEA Ingvar Kamprad, established system that its costumers as 'prosumers' and its supplier as the customers (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). The system has created value that allowed its product available in lower price but still in a good quality. Moreover, IKEA also has advantages from its unique advertisement that using catalogue throughout the world.

However, in the first of their move toward expansion to North America in 185 was not successful as in Europe. The problem was in 10 where the company needs to change its approach for such a different in tastes and preferences. As the results, IKEA North America sales had tripled to $480 million in 14 and it doubled in 17 to $00 million (Hill, 001).

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II.Introduction

IKEA is one of good example of the International company which compete in global marketing and expand their business in furniture specialized. The 'Swedish design' company success is based on the relatively simple idea of keeping the cost between manufactures and customers down. Therefore, this case study will examine of IKEA international company and its element through answering the three questions provided.

III.Question 1

What has allowed IKEA to be successful with a relatively standardized product and product line in a business with strong cultural influence? Did adaptation to this strategy in the North American market constitute a defeat to their approach?

Answers

According to IKEA founder, Ingvar Kamprad it has concept to offer a variety of home furnishing of good design and function at price so low in order to attract people to buy them (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). IKEA has successful in international business market with emphasis through three long-term strategies, which an organization can build its core competencies (Olsson, 16).

1.Achieve overall low-cost leadership in the industry

.Market production that are differentiated

.Focus on market segments for growth in cost and differentiation

IKEA perform its competitive positioning by performing key internal in value chain at lower cost and better than its competitors perform. IKEA introduce value system between its consumers and suppliers as "prosumers" by means half producers and half consumers (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). In this system, the customers are suppliers of a time, labor, information knowledge and transportation. On the other hand, the suppliers are customers, receiving technical assistance. Customers are informed in the catalogue of what IKEA provide and what they are expected to add to the final process. It is clearly that value-chain modification makes IKEA different from its competitors (Hodgetts and Luthans, 000). Those are the explanation of IKEA's value chain from the diagram below.

Sources The case study " IKEA in the USA", Page 1

To pursue this concept the company is using the subcontracted manufacturers all over the world for supplies. Because the company produce same product all over its stores, therefore it order a large amount of item to its suppliers. By means of this system, IKEA gain in economic of scale which refer to reduction in cost by production in large volume to fulfill its products needs which numerous and big size. However, IKEA still control for the design to maintain the quality and the style. Furthermore, most of the suppliers are from low labor countries and near to material needed. In exchange, IKEA provide them with technical assistances, lease of equipment and long-term contract (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). Furthermore, IKEA has gain in learning effect which refer to the cost saving that comes from learning by doing (Hill, 001). IKEA has life experience in furniture specialist production. Its designer has work together with the suppliers, which counted nearly 0 in 64 countries throughout the world (Michael and Ronkainen, 001) to produce standardized product to its market at a lower cost. The knowledge that its designer had is communicated carefully with the suppliers to meet the standardized products need.

In the second strategy, a differentiation strategy is aimed at delivering products that are different from the competition in particular market. In this case, IKEA has modified the cost leader and value chain that makes them different in one target market that is Young people of all ages (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). The standardized product that IKEA offered is also reflecting that they are differentiating its product.

Sources The case study " IKEA in the USA", Page 1

Moreover to achieved strategic positioning and give value added to its customers. To facilitate shopping, IKEA provide catalogue, tape measures, shopping lists and pencils for writing notes and measurement. IKEA also could reap the cost from its choosing of the stores, where most of the locations are not in city. However, IKEA provide its consumers with car rental companies that offer van or truck with lower rates. To give consumers additional convenience, some of its stores provided with cafeteria, child play and large spaces of parking (Hodgetts and Luthans, 000).

In the third strategy, it is clearly stated by Ronkainen that IKEA focusing on one particular target segment that is young people of all ages. As indicated from IKEA vision statement, that they provide the products with quality but at low cost (IKEA home page, http//www.ikea.com/about_ikea/our_vision/how.asp), and focusing at one particular strategy, it is proved that IKEA applying differentiation strategy. However, the similar target market that IKEA pursue is not stopping them to be cultural sensitivity. In one example, IKEA which has been importing "Swedish, furniture design" to America customer has found a new concept to export "American style" of IKEA for European market (Michael andRonkainen, 001).

From the historical experience of IKEA expanding into US market in 185 until 10 was quite succeed (Hodgetts and Luthans, 000). However, in 10 when first expanding to North America was not successful as before. According to Hodget and Luthans, IKEA ran into difficulties for several reasons

᠖Different tastes in furniture and a requirement for more customized furniture. For instance, European bed design were not wide enough for American consumers, also IKEA did not sell matching bedroom accessories suitable with American preferences. American glass needs bigger size where they can put a lot of ice. In one story of Groll and Schoch is said that American buy European vast for glass drink. (Hodgetts and Luthans, 000).

᠖Difficulties to transfer Swedish design economical culture to the American market. For instance, the different measures where in Europe is centimeters where in America is inches. When they are trying a curtain, the size of curtain is different (Hill, 00)

Therefore, some adjustments have made to the approach. For instance, IKEA increasing its joint with local supplier and use local sources develop product within their core competence for the local market as well as the increasing responds to local market in American preferences (Hill, 00). As the results, IKEA North America sales had tripled to $480 million in 14 and it doubled in 17 to $00 million (Hill, 00). Moreover, IKEA experiencing learning and has made a new concept to export "American design" to European market (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). In other words, it was true that IKEA experiencing some difficulties during expanding in North American market, however IKEA still keep their basic approach and gain new learning to its company culture that may led to increasing its sales.

IV.Question

Which features of the "young people of all ages" are universal and can be exploited by global/regional strategy?

Answers

•Ronkainen have stated that the principal target market of IKEA, is composed of people who are young, highly educated, liberal in their cultural values, professional workers, and not especially concerned with status symbols, which is similar across countries and regions in which IKEA has an existence (Michael and Ronkainen, 001). As to achieve IKEA's mission is to offer a wide range of home furnishing items of good design, function, excellent quality and durability, at price so low, IKEA targets the customer who is looking for value and is willing to do a little bit of work serving themselves, transporting the items home and assembling the furniture for a better price. The matches IKEA customer is young low to middle-income family. Modern and simple life style of IKEA's design is certainly attracted of its target market.

•According to Grol and Schoch the target market of young people in IKEA is the typical of global company that the similarities are come into view in each of countries market (Hodget and Luthans, 000). IKEA advertisement used television, magazines, billboards and newspapers, but all markets had the same advertisements, whether it was in California or New York. Ikea no longer uses this technique. Ikea now has different commercials for different regions in the world. This is another example of how their global strategy had to be changed (Young, Chandonnet, Long, http//www.hed.msu.edu/internationalretailing/company/IKEA/body_ikea.html). Nevertheless, IKEA also has marketing strategies for different types of consumers within different regions. For Instance, in April, the Ikea in Singapore held an innovative promotion. They held a sleepover in the store for 100 guests (Young, Chandonnet, Long, http//www.hed.msu.edu/internationalretailing/company/IKEA/body_ikea.html). Customers were allowed to spend the night on the bed of their choice and in the morning, they were given the option of purchasing the bed at a 50 percent discount. The promotion was used to introduce the smaller framed Asian customers to the European sized beds. The promotion went over well and received good response. Moreover, IKEAs catalogs have played a primary role in advertising success. The catalogs are convenient and attractive. They emphasize the quality of design and illustrate practical home furnishings. The catalog is issued to a wide range of potential consumers within close geographic proximity of the target area and is usually distributed before the opening of a new store (IKEA home page, http//www.ikea.com/about_ikea/our_vision/how.asp). The catalogs do not offer Ikeas entire product range. The sales from direct mail is not a big portion of Ikeas total sales, the catalogs are a key factor to invite customers into the stores.

V.Question

Is IKEA destined to succeed everywhere it cares to establish itself?

Answers

•IKEA is not destined to succeed everywhere it cares to establish itself. With all of their expansions, there are some possible concerns for the future. One of those concern is emerging of demographic trends such ageing people will force the organization to broaden its focus strategy (Young, Chandonnet, Long, http//www.hed.msu.edu/internationalretailing/company/IKEA/body_ikea.html). Furthermore, as expanding emerging also it will be more difficult to respond to national needs and cultural sensitivity issues. It is highly questionable whether the current centralized design and research development department is able to understand global customer needs and satisfy all of them better than the local competition. For instance, Scandinavian customers like furniture in light pastel colors. On the other hand, American prefers darker and classic designs. Presently, Ikea ignores this issue and pushes its Scandinavian designed furniture into the American market (Olsson, 16).

•Long-term contract with suppliers may demand more control as the expansion continuing. It may led to the imitating of knowledge expertise that would threat to the IKEA concepts and adopt by local competitors (Olsson, 16).

I.Conclusion

In conclusion, IKEA is one of the largest retailer home furniture, which offering unique, quality, stylish and lower cost products to the international consumer of Sweden furniture home design. In their system, it approaches three long-term strategies on its core-competence. Moreover, IKEA has global target market, which is similar in difference countries; however, they have made some changes for the adaptation in international expansion. Finally, it has approved that the ability of IKEA's international expansion would be success if the company realize of the differences.

Bibliography

Books

•Fletcher, R and Brown, L. 1. " International Marketing An Asia-Pacific Perspective", Pearson Education, Prentice Hall, Frenchs Forest, ( P. 5, 1, 465)

•Hill, C. 001, "International Business Competitive in the Global Marketplace, Postcript 00", rd edn, McGraw Hill, New York, (P. 7-)

•Hodget, R and Luthans, F. 000, "International Management Culture, Strategy and Behavior, International Edition", 4th edn, McGraw Hill, (P. 1-)

Article

•Grol, p and Schoch, C. 17, "IKEA Managing Cultural Diversity", Hodget, R and Luthans, F. 000, "International Management Culture, Strategy and Behavior, International Edition", 4th edn, McGraw Hill, (P. 1-)

Case Study

•Michael, C, R and Ronkainen I. 001. "IKEA in the USA", International Marketing", 6th edn, Harcourt, P. 10-14

Internet

•IKEA home page, Available http//www.ikea.com/about_ikea/our_vision/how.asp),

•Olsson, J. 16, "IKEA of Sweden", Available http//www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/1848/ikea.html

•Young, Chandonnet and Long. "IKEA", Available http//www.hed.msu.edu/internationalretailing/company/IKEA/body_ikea.html

Please note that this sample paper on IKEA is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on IKEA, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom research papers on IKEA will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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How Does Advertising Work

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How does advertising work?

There are numerous ways through which people are persuaded to buy their necessities or even luxuries. It is especially through these persuasive actions of the marketers, publicists and producers that advertising " an active strategy of selling and marketing" (P. Falk 1765 in Buy this Book) became the means of selling the products. However, since humans are complex beings having many different habits and patterns, it is of utmost importance that these patterns and habits are identified and understood for efficient advertising. Thus, it is through the Manchester model that in this essay I will attempt to argue some aspects of advertising, which does not only revolve around simple TV ads but also draws from production through to reception. I will also argue that advertising does encounter difficulties that I will review as its criticisms. I therefore will not be using the Hypodermic Syringe or Two Step-Flow model to analyze advertising.

Paul Taylor et al writes "advertising agencies normally prefer a market research classification which groups people along occupational lines which reflect consumption patterns, spending power and life styles". (P. Taylor et al 151). In other words producers and advertisers are not simply producing for everyone but for different segments of people within the audience. It is for this reason that the way in which people consume and spend is of great importance to the advertisers and producers. This is because it helps the producers to make their advertisement the most efficient. We can illustrate this argument using the example below and simultaneously exploring the way in which advertisements are produced. (P. Taylor et al 15).

In production the aim is to indulge people to buy the idea or product. Sometimes the product or idea is manufactured so as to openly advertise its related item such as in the case of fashion shows promoting clothes that are mostly directed towards the consumers with more purchasing power. However in other circumstances of production the idea of the product is hidden within a broader picture. Lury supports this argument from a Marxist perspective when she argues, " Marx used the term fetishism of commodities to describe the disguising or masking of commodities whereby the appearance of goods hides the story of those who made them and how they were made" (C.Lury 1641). Then not only the clothes are being advertised in a fashion show for example, but rather more importantly the culture, lifestyle, history and materialism is being advertised but in disguise. The above was thus an essential tool in the cold war for the transmission of western capitalistic ideology. (C.Lury 16).

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Thus as the model emphasizes, through segmentation producers use the manner in which people consume not only to know how and what to produce but also to circulate, sell and distribute their products or ideas especially in cases where they have manufactured new products and ideas. (P. Taylor et al 15)

When we talk about distribution for a particular audience we can use the children as an illustration since it is well known that they learn through exploration and discovery, thus the latter are used as method to induce children to consume newly made products. In a local advertisement, the setting of children in a spaceship on a mission of exploration was the tool employed to lead children to discover the new snack called 'double cheese curls'. As children are fans of television the means of distribution of the product was indeed television. The result was that children were good consumers of the product. Thus for advertising to work the producers need to identify their audience and the means of circulation and distribution carefully this often comprises of the television, radio, magazines, internet etc. (P. Taylor et al 15)

Even if the consumption pattern is drawn out it is of uttermost importance that what the audience consumes carries a meaning to which he can identify himself. Thus the exchange values attached to the product are essential if it is to be bought when advertised. Often different categories of commodities are used with different types of values to amplify the coolness, morality, traditionalism etc, which are coded within the advertising of a product. Therefore messages are conveyed through diverse signs and symbols known as semiotics that people have to decode as Stuart Hall argues. Semiotics is also used on advertising destinations especially for exotic islands such as Seychelles. As a result, meanings are attributed to a product, this is why Jones and Jones argue, " we can only make sense of a sign when it is set in a meaningful context". (Jones and Jones 1171).

Additionally semiotics can also have an effect on the emotions; this results in emotions being used when advertising a product, to evoke certain feelings of belonging, sympathy, security or shock. Many products and even musical shows held for the aid of orphans carried a greater impact when princess Diana or her memory was used as a popular figure for its advertisement. This promoted a sense of sympathy, sadness and morality compelling the consumers to belong to the same group as Lady Diana and thus participating and buying for a good cause. Often people such as Mother Theresa or Princess Diana are used because of their popularity and nobleness to invite people to contribute towards many activities and to feel moral satisfaction. Hence popularity and authenticity are tools used to influence people into buying, consuming or supporting an idea. (G. Branston and R. Stafford 00).

However if the producer intends to make the commodity 'worldwide' it cannot solely rely on the promotion of its product but also on its brand, thus "branding associates certain meanings with product"(G. Branston and R. Stafford 007).One might argue that consumers tend to consume and buy to soothe feelings of anxiety and fear from being insecure and deprived of their essential needs. Branding then comes as a guarantor that even before use, things will be better. Thus the Virgin Company took to establishing itself in almost all aspects of the consumer's life by advertising thus selling its name before its product inspiring a sense of security. This is common in the promotion of its logo on different items that it produces such as t-shirts and also donations or sponsors that it offers. (G. Branston and R. Stafford 00).

But how does governance fit into advertising 's manner of application? In order to pass on messages and ideas, producers need to have modes of transmission, which include TV, radio, newspapers, magazines internet etc. Power and popularity are key factors that help into the production of advertisements. Therefore a person such as Rupert Murdoch can be of good influence to the audience, as he possesses not only ownership but also a certain degree of control over the media. Another interesting aspect of governance in advertising is the mere fact that technology can make it possible for the sale of products to a person directly. This is because information about a person can be obtained at only a click away on a computer database. In other words a great deal of brainwashing is used in order to get to the desired effect of advertising. (C.Lury 16).

The last phase of this model that we will argue about advertising is the reception or response. Advertising thus works by producing discourses about particular objects or ideologies where one of such is the way that the audience undeniably comprised of women comes to perceive women themselves as sexual objects to men as well as seen in the home. (S. Thornham 000). Interestingly then, it invites the consumer to change consumption pattern and adopt one that matches better with the evolution in capitalist production and consumption which in turn is being reified. Thus on reception the consumer buys into a different culture, which will influence his consumption at a very significant extent. (C.Lury 16).

Nonetheless after seeing the working aspects of advertising we now come to its critical aspect, when we attack its position about production. Often, 'Over production' of products hampers the real effect of advertising. This is such because when there's over production, not all the commodities have the chance to produce the desired effect and the audience often feels misguided and indecisive. Ultimately the consumer does not buy what is needful and useful for the value of his money and often takes more time than intended to decide upon a commodity. Yet as Branston and Stafford argue "it defends itself by arguing that it helps us to be 'rational consumers'". (Branston and Stafford 0067). But in reality the audience becomes less rational because of too much of the product for example shampoos to choose from are being advertised. Rather than being efficient at choice the advertisements often slows decision and rationality. (Branston and Stafford 00).

Human beings are very unpredictable. Even if there is much research done to understand how people react there is still the element of uncertainty when dealing with humans. Thus one other critique is the assumption that the market research can predict the reactions of the consumer is thrown into question, since it is very important to keep up with every day reactions of the audience. Thus keeping up with the consumer proves to be an impossible task in itself. As a consequence advertisers are faced with uncertainties that they often cannot solve or overcome. This proves to be one of the downfalls of advertising and undoubtedly a challenge to the producers and advertisers. (C.Lury 16).

Semiotics is one other area where much can be criticized. This is because we can argue that it is not always easy or straightforward to understand the coded messages being conveyed through those numerous signs and symbols. One of the major reasons for this is that producers and advertisers overestimate the educative and discerning skills of the readers and assumes that they will be able to comprehend what is being transmitted. (V. Nightingale 16).

So, occasionally the images, signs and symbols give the audience limited range of readings because of their prior education and therefore makes it, that the reader cannot understand the intended message and thus acquire a different meaning to the originally intended one. This happened with one of the advertisement where Russ Abbot the comedian was used as an actor in an ad for Castella Cigars, and instead of understanding what the ad was about the audience understood it as a joke. This is termed as Leakey boundaries by O'Donohoe, between advertising and cultural forms. (S. O'Donohoe from Buy this Book 17).

One other aspect of advertising that brings undesired effects and that producers and advertisers have to deal with is negative advertising. We can relate negative advertising to the different messages conveyed to the community through music and songs. As young people are vulnerable and very flexible many musical groups use youth vulnerability to promote drugs, sex, racism and violence. Thus production and advertising often have to watch out for the negative influences or contradictions of their production for this brings about what Schroder calls "The Cynical Response"(K. Schroder from Buy this Book 178). That is the audience resents what the producers are promoting through their advertisements and productions because it does not take into consideration the interest of the community. As a result the advertisement can produce negative responses. (K. Schroder from Buy this Book 17).

In conclusion one can come to realize that advertising plays a major role into our everyday lives. This is essentially portrayed into the way that we consume and behave vis-à-vis advertising. We cannot therefore shut ourselves away form advertisement for to a greater extent that we might want to acknowledge it is almost impossible to live in a world without advertising. In analyzing the Manchester model I have explored only some of the ways in which advertising works. This forces us to come to the realization that whether we like it or not we are influenced beyond our own control to abide to the domination of advertisement in our lives. Be it in production, circulation or exchange-value advertising is able to revolutionize the way we use to perceive things into new discourses for its own benefit. (Branston and Stafford 00)

Although, advertisers, publicists and marketers encounter several objections these do not flush out the scope that advertising has on its consumers but rather presents new ways in which the producers and advertisers need to work in order to keep their business going. Advertisement can be of great benefit to consumers but Branston and Stafford brings us to realize a very pertinent position that might be one of overwhelming concern. One might think that if advertising induces unlimited consumption we can come to a point where we are so indulged in capitalistic consumption that we might lose our identity through the incessant search to belong and feel secure through consumption. (Branston and Stafford 00).

Bibliography

Branston Gill and Stafford, 00, Studying the Media, Routledge, UK.

Jones Emma and Jones Marsha, 1, Mass Media, chapter , Palgrave New York.

Lury Celia, 16 Consumer Culture, chapter , Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers, UK.

Nava Mica et al, 17, Buy this Book, part 1 and 4, Routledge, London and New York.

Nightingale Virginia, 16, Studying Audiences The Shock of the Real, chapter1, Routledge, London and New York.

Taylor Paul et al, 15, Sociology in Focus, chapter , Bath Press.

Thornham S, 000, Identity Shopping Women and Consumer Culture in Feminist Theory and Cultural Studies, London Arnold.

Bibliography

Branston Gill and Stafford, 00, Studying the Media, Routledge, UK.

Jones Emma and Jones Marsha, 1, Mass Media, chapter , Palgrave New York.

Lury Celia, 16 Consumer Culture, chapter , Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers, UK.

Nava Mica et al, 17, Buy this Book, part 1 and 4, Routledge, London and New York.

Nightingale Virginia, 16, Studying Audiences The Shock of the Real, chapter1, Routledge, London and New York.

Taylor Paul et al, 15, Sociology in Focus, chapter , Bath Press.

Thornham S, 000, Identity Shopping Women and Consumer Culture in Feminist Theory and Cult

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Customer service

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on customer service. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality customer service paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in customer service, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your customer service paper at affordable prices with !Before I get into further analysis of my own personal experience, I am going to explain about different characteristics that are involved in customer service. Most businesses will tell you that quality customer service is the keystone to success. An essential component of outstanding customer service is the possession of a great staff. Larger companies may be weighed down by employee handbooks that specify the customer service guidelines. Independent, smaller businesses have the advantage of selecting employees that possess excellent customer service know how and capabilities. The customer service department should also be extremely familiar with the inventory, services, and policies entailed in the store. Knowledgeable employees satisfy customers.

For customer service face-to-face, employees should concentrate on their own appearance. A sloppy look, chomping on gum or an employee lacking hygiene can negatively reflect on the company. Having a dress code or grooming evaluations can motivate employees to excel in face to face situations. Every small aspect involved can affect the business as a whole.

Once the right staff has been hired, there has to be an example set for them to follow. Rewards are a good incentive to inspire employees to go the extra mile. Establishing employee of the month recognition programs, giving gifts, or verbally acknowledging accomplishments are good ways to drive the staff toward the set out goals of a business. Some companies train their staff by asking them to put themselves in the customer's position. When people consider their own preferences, they may be more apt to see where the customer is coming from. It is important to have the dual goal in mind of keeping the customer happy and at the same time working toward benefiting the business. One way to keep this practice is the LEAR method of handling customers.LEAR is an acronym for Listen, Empathize, Ask Questions, and Resolve the Problem. All employees should try and practice this method of handling customer problems, with the end goal being to send the customer away in a good mood. Treating people the way they want to be treated is generally a good approach to a problem.

With a well trained and qualified staff, the customer service department has a better chance at success. In my experience, handling customers is much easier when a step by step exact approach given to the employee, but also giving them the freedom to integrate their own methods that can correspond with the employee's personality and the personality of the individual customer. In general, the employee should first listen to what the customer has to say without interrupting them. At all times, the employee should stay very calm, it takes two to make an argument. They should give an indication that they understand and sympathize with what the customer is saying. The problem then should be logically analyzed.There should be a differentiation between the assumptions, facts, generalizations, and emotions. Try and find out exactly what happened by digging for the facts and not placing blame anywhere. Then, try and read the person better to figure out what the true problem they are having really is. Are they actually angry at what is happening right now, or are they just in a bad mood and looking to release their problems somewhere? One of the easiest questions to ask is What can we do to make this right so you are a happy customer when you walk out the door, when you hang up this phone, etc.? Take full responsibility for finding a satisfying solution, and make sure to see the customer through to ensure they are getting what is owed to them. The response made should call for immediate action to be taken if it is possible, this will make the customer feel important and raise their level of satisfaction.

Many times the problem can be simply solved by letting the customer talk to someone in authority. This also raises the level of satisfaction with a feeling of importance. It is good to never view the problem as insolvable; customers will spread the word of dissatisfaction to other people which will further hurt the business. A good idea is to ensure the customer that methods will be taken to prevent this problem from happening in the future. Employees can make a difference if the customer feels that they are making a difference on the business. Many companies learn that effective service recovery heightens customer loyalty.It costs approximately five times as much money to acquire an existing customer then it does to keep an old one.

Without using these methods, I have found that there are many approaches that make the customer angrier than they were in the first place. One of the best is telling the customer how important they are and how much this call means to the company, and then letting the customer sit on hold forever. It is even better when it is just a recording that interrupts the annoying elevator music on the phone repeating over and over that this call is important to us, remain holding. If this call is so important, why am I on hold for an hour?A business can always keep transferring the customer to different departments, and each department can redirect them. This will make the customer become angry at all of the departments and not just one employee. At least with one employee, the customer may not feel the whole company is unqualified and not helpful. Making the customer explain their problem over and over makes them angrier and angrier. One of the best ways to make a customer irate is to put them on hold for awhile, and then disconnect them. Now they have to call back to get put on hold again? A good example of this problem with miscommunications can be seen in a letter I wrote to Wal-Mart. (See Appendix 1) Not to sound racist, but it is also a good idea to not make the entire customer service department lack in English speaking skills. Customers do not enjoy having to repeat and explain themselves a hundred times and still feel as if they are not being understood correctly. The customer needs to be able to relate to the employee just like the employee needs to relate to the customer. A similar language and culture can greatly improve this relationship. One of the worst things to do is making the customer feel as if they are wrong. But is the customer always right?

The popular customer service motto, "The customer is always right" has the right message, but is not fully accurate. I feel that customers should be treated as if they are right at most times, but certain circumstances should not be tolerated. The customer has the "right" to be in control, but not the full power of always being "right." Sometimes the customer is wrong, and even when this is proven, they can not accept it. Even when the customer is wrong, it is still a good idea to do whatever possible to make them feel better about the situation. Saying no to a customer is basically saying we no longer want your business, because in most circumstances that is the result. Having concise return policies and warranties are ways to protect the business. Most people are reasonable and want what they are entitled to. There are a small percentage of customers that can just not be helped and are never satisfied. There are just certain whiny nonstop-complaining customers who have nothing better to do that ruin other people's days. They scream, curse, and treat the employees like dirt. No matter what is done for them, it is not good enough. After a certain point, these customers just need to be written off. Of course, it should take awhile to reach this point. Only when completely necessary should a customer not get the royal treatment they deserve. When the customer is written off, they should not receive the much deserved screaming, verbally (or even physically) abusive response. As good as it would feel to smack the customer across the face and tell them where they can shove the product they have a complaint with, the reputation of the business is still at stake. Nicely, they should be told that there is nothing that can be done and if they wish to discontinue their business, then we are sorry but that is their only option.

There is an entire other group of people that needs to be acknowledged the group of people that do not make any complaints when they are dissatisfied. Up until this project, I had never written a letter of complaint to any company no matter how unhappy I was. However, I was not completely silent. I would spread the word of my dissatisfaction to others and influence their decisions, the same way people have influenced me. I was part of that group of people that companies really need to look out for and have the most difficulty finding. According to findings, the average "wronged" customer will tell eight to sixteen people about a negative experience.To deal with the silent deceiving customers who seem satisfied, the best a company can do is encourage comments and complaints. Pushing people to write down comments helps you hear what all different types of people think, not just the aggressive people who go after what they want and deserve. Showing the quiet customers that you care what they think and will take necessary steps in improving the aspects that are displeasing to them, is an excellent method to get the customers that may have "fallen through the cracks."

Another way to ensure customer satisfaction is to go above and beyond expectations. Giving the customer something they do not expect is an excellent way to keep their satisfaction levels high and increase the company's market awareness. Incentives such as free items, discounts, and coupons are a few obvious ways to accomplish this. Addition services include gift wrapping, delivery, and free samples. A simple example for a retail store is creating a friendly atmosphere by having employees greet customers walking into the store. Smiles and sincerity are essential parts of quality customer service.

I would like to further explain the recent decline in customer service here in America. There has been deregulation in a variety of industries, but consumer rights have been at the bottom of the list. Some of this deregulation has even exempted companies from State Consumer Protection Laws. The tight economy has also impacted the way customers are handled. During a down economy, many cuts are made in companies. One of the first departments to experience the cut is customer service. Customer care is often overlooked when making these budget cuts. Although, management needs to realize that this disregard is going to impact other parts of the company's sales and reputation.

The advancements in technology have been a huge disappointment and aggravation for consumers. Technology is on a steady incline. That's positive, right? Automated voices that can direct calls and answer customers' questions helps cut employees and save money for a company. It probably even exceeds the cost of the new technology, malfunctions, and paying people to install and maintain it. I have had some conversations with these "computers" and have actually had my questions answered. However, I have also experienced the computer have no clue what I was talking about. It kept asking me over and over to restate my question. Now, this wouldn't be a problem if I was given the option to speak to someone. It would be pretty simple if the computer was trained to say, "Since I can't help you, I will redirect you to someone human." Imagine the nerve of a customer actually wishing to speak to a human! How about my eighty-five year old grandma who cannot grasp the concept that she is not talking to a real person, she tells me the lady on the phone is rude and does not understand her. So what should be done about this? Should old people just not be allowed to use the phone? At the age of seventy, should you lose phone privileges?Technology may be advanced, but when it comes to customer service, the proper precautions must be enforced to continually ensure customer satisfaction. Using an automated service to direct calls as opposed to actually solving the problem would be a more intelligent solution.

Now, I have explained the general concepts, by highlighting both the positives and negative aspects, involved in modern day customer service. The next part of my analysis involves the responses I have received from the individual letters I wrote. I had planned to write different forms of letters. My initial thought was that the tone, extent of problem, and the amount of time I had actually put in writing the letter would have an effect. As a result of research into customer service departments, I soon realized that each company trains their customer service representatives to treat problems a certain way. The type of industry would also have a large effect in the business's approach and seriousness of the company's concern. When a letter is received, there is a generic way to approach a solution. Writing a letter or sending an email is the least time-consuming and least stressful method for a customer to do. However, letters may not even be read or the root of the problem may be unclear and misunderstood. It is the best approach to deal with the problem face-to-face; it is the way to get the maximum satisfaction possible. But, it is also the most time-consuming and aggravating. Using the phone may be more effective than a letter, but as I previously mentioned, the phone could also be a huge frustration with the recent technological advancements and customer service representative problems. I chose the letter and email method due to the fact that complaining to over seventy-five companies within my three month time frame was not feasible by another method. Three months was not enough to allot for me visiting each company or spending hundreds of hours on the phone. (See Appendix ) The general tone I used in my letters was very serious and also very upset. I tried to come across as someone who would only complain if it was a big deal and also leave the companies with the threat that my future business was in question. As much as possible, I tried to come across as intellectual and educated about the individual business in question. For example, my letter to Target Corporation (See Appendix ) is very similar to the previous Wal-Mart letter you viewed. However, Target has a customer service policy which I brought up to get my message across. If my letter was actually read closely, they would have seen the seriousness of my complaint.

Please note that this sample paper on customer service is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on customer service, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on customer service will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Gender

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TAKE HOME EXAM

Gender is the cultural dimension of sex, which is a biological material dimension.Like anything in culture, there is nothing true or permanent about gender except it is a historical, dynamic, meaning-making system.Since gender culturally establish correlates of sex, the attribution of gender are based not on an inspection of the sexual organs of individuals but on the judgements of their performance in relation to the culturally constructed gender categories.If a society establishes a structure on the basis of sex and gender, males and females will be granted and limited at the same time to certain privileges.In the Western culture, the social construction of sex and gender has placed social expectation on men.The masculine world is expected to be non-emotional, loud, messy, money makers, math and science oriented and most of all, exhibit assertive behaviours that demonstrate power and authority. As a result, these social expectations on men have valorized and yet subjugated them at the same time, leaving them in a position of an unrealistic reality of masculinity.In this exposition, I will analyze the role that popular culture plays in the early stages of men's lives, household, workforce, educational system and athletics.In the end, I will conclude that although masculinity has its benefits to the masculine world, it also subjugates them because it creates an unrealistic expectation on men and it encourages men to be violent and aggressive in their behaviour.

Much of the ideas about masculinity come from the media.What we see on television or in the movies, what we read in the newspaper or in magazines, what we see on billboards or hear on the radio, reinforces societal expectations of masculinity.The images in popular culture represent men as heroic and strong.It also portrays men as violent and angry, leaders, problem solvers, confident, successful, athletic, lacking sensitivity, and authoritative in the public sphere.As a result, these expectations advance the notion that a 'real man' is one that is demanding or aggressive in getting his desires and goals.Hence, a man is expected to be in his proper sphere of action which is the economic and political arena and as well, he is expected to be the head of the household, for which he must provide for his wife and children.Furthermore, society looks forward to the masculine world to be strong and not admit to any uncertainties because if they do, it is perceived as a sign of weakness.Despite the fact that men are at an advantage in society, they are subjugated and brought under control by these social expectations.

The media images of masculinity are present in a male's life as early as the first stages of infancy.When a baby boy is born, he is distinguished and characterized by his gender before he can take his first breath of life outside his mother's womb.As well, when a baby boy is brought home from the hospital, he is dressed in blue clothes because it helps friends, families, and even strangers to identify the sex of the child.In the article "The construction of Masculinity", Michael Kaufman stated that "masculinity is unconsciously rooted before the age of six, and then positively explodes at adolescence" (Kaufman, 115).With that in mind, men were socialized at a young age by their fathers, mothers, teaches, mentors, friends, and other role models such as television and movies that boys are to play with guns, planes, engage in 'contact' sports, be tough if they get hurt and independent.As a result of ideas, attitudes, behaviours and beliefs that men learnt in their childhood and adolescence, they matured believing that they are to behave in a powerful, active masculine manner (Kaufman, 10).

Cheap College Papers on Gender

Consequently, the social construction of masculinity by the media and the reinforcement of their gender roles by parents valorize men to have an advantage over women in our society as the dominant sex.In society, men dominate institutions such as the church, family, and law.This domination by men has created a patriarchal society, in which it has oppressed and exploited women at every level of reality. Despite the fact that conflict has escalated between male and female, society believes that it is natural for a man to have power, aggression, and authority (Kaufman 110).Furthermore, since men are depicted as the logical thinker and discipliner, this logical framework has served to valorize men in the role of a dictator and control agent.In order for a man to continue to be logical in his life, he has been socialized into rejecting emotions and feelings from the external environment.This is a formula that men must follow in order to be separated mentally and emotionally from all things.With that in mind, men must abstract their world into something that seems disconnected from themselves or anyone else.The purpose of this is to dissect each segment of a problem and reformulate it into a disciplined logical order so it can be used to construct a value system and perform tasks for men.

Nevertheless, men have been valorized into the role as a provider. Society expects men to provide food, shelter, and care to his wife and children. This role valorizes men because it gives them an advantage in the home and the public sphere. Since men are to be the provider, they are encouraged to go out and find work and the women are advised to stay home and take care of the children.As well, men have control in the household because they are expected to be a good father that discipline and set down rules for his home.Since men maintain a patriarchal role in the family, it valorizes them as the driving force that ensures his children perform their responsibilities as he provides love and guidance to them. Hence, the dominant role assumed by men creates a pattern for male activities to be valued higher than female activities and as a result, popular culture images of masculinity becomes extremely difficult to overcome.

Men are also valorized in the workforce because they have tremendous power in the public sphere. As in all pursuits, men see business and other professions as a competition, a battle for dominance.They use their occupation as a means to engage in a competition against other men and female, in order to maintain their high wages. Men are socially responsible because they arrange their combative competition in business that organizes as a limited civil and/or private economic competition.As a result of the masculine world pursuit of power and dominance, men have been socialized into having the responsibility to temper their combative urges in the public economy and be dictators in the political arena.Since men have higher value in society, they enjoy high prestige jobs and job titles.This power and dominance that men have in the workforce has created a gender and wage gap between the sexes.Women who enter the public sphere are forced to compete with men for wages and prestige jobs and since they do not hold the same power and authority as men, they earn significantly less, even if they are more qualified that the opposite sex.

Nonetheless, men valorize the educational system.At university, males and females are channeled into different fields.For example, men are encouraged into the math and science field.In the article "Patriarchy, Scientists, and Nuclear Warriors", Brian Easlea stated that science especially Physics is a "'hard', intellectually difficult subject as opposed to 'soft' ones, such as English or history" (Easlea, 148).Easlea believes that there is a hard-soft spectrum within sciences, in which physics is the hardest, chemistry is in the middle, and biology is at the soft end (Easlea, 148).Men valorize the educational system because science and math are perceived as male orientated subjects since men can reason and intellectually solve problems as oppose to females. As a result, the "aspects of the masculinity of physics is that the men who inhabit this scientific worldparticularly those who are successful in itbehave in culturally masculine ways" (Easlea, 147).Easlea confirms that like "all other hierarchical male-dominated activities, getting to the invariably entails aggressive, competitive behavior" (Easlea, 147).However, if it was not for this institutionalized and socially competitive aggressive behavior, men would not be ranked higher in academics.On that account, men have higher value in the educational system because the educational system reinforces gender stereotypes and sex roles and teachers tend to set assignments which further reinforce masculine behavior.With that in mind, schools socialize males and females into different orientation of life.As a consequence, males and females enter university with gender-linked aspirations and it is these, rather than presumed innate characteristics that allow men to have dominance and authority in society.

The social construction of masculinity also valorizes men in ways of athletics.Since men at an early age are encouraged to participate in sports like football or hockey, they grow up into adulthood with athletic prowess.And since they watch their fathers dote and fawn over a game on television, men are instilled at a young age with the desire to excel physically.As a result, sports valorize men because it teaches them in their childhood to be strong, aggressive and competitive. Through sports, men learn what it means to be masculine and if they show signs of femininity, they are taunted with phrases such as "Don't be a sissy" or "Only girls do that". Furthermore, the valorizing of sports socializes men into having tones, muscular bodies.Health and fitness becomes a concern for men because having a toned and muscular body is seen and depicted in society as the ideal (Bordo, 6).In the article "Reading the slender body", Susan Bordo stated that 'muscles have chiefly symbolized and continue to symbolize power as physical strength" (Bordo, 6).As a result of this ideal male body, men who stay fit through sports and exercise gets their masculinity shaped and molded.

However, although men may have all the power in society, masculinity can be "terrifying fragile because it does not really exist in the sense we are led to think it exists" (Kaufman, 115). Kaufman stated that "masculinity exists as ideology; it exists as scripted behavior; it exists within 'gendered' relationship" (Kaufman, 115).With that in mind, men in society are subjugated by the social construction of masculinity.The standards set out for men have put them in a straightjacket that leads to anger, despair, and often violence.Due to the aggressive and dominating behavior of men, Michael Kaufman believes that 'violence is one aspect of our society's domination by men that, in outcome, if not always in design reinforce that domination" (Kaufman, 10). He also affirmed that the act of violence in the individual man is "acting out relations of sexual power; it is the violence of a societya hierarchical, authoritarian, sexiest, class-divided, militarist, racist, impersonal, crazy society" (Kaufman, 10).

Despite the fact that there is great social prestige with masculinity, many men do not match it or desire to.As a result, men feel subjugated because masculinity has put their traditional gender at risk since it is thought to lead to violence.Men rather than women are central to the symbolism of violence in mass media, sports, and political rhetoric.Since men have an economic advantage over women, they have been given the privilege to defend, which they may defend in violence or may make women vulnerable to violence.It should come as no surprise that men reinforce their domination through violence because at an early age, men were encouraged by popular culture to play with weapons and learn military skills.As well, violent behavior expressed from television and advertising also enforces violence because the images from advertising often use violence towards women.This violence against women is often pushed to the point of encouragement of rape (Kaufman, 116). Sexual harassment or rape occurs when a man feel that his power and status is threatened, for he is angered when he cannot achieve the entitlements of his gender.Therefore, although men rule and fashion society, the reactions to violence only "confirms the negative self-image and the feeling of powerlessness of the fragility, artificiality, and precariousness of masculinity" (Kaufman, 117).

In addition, the social expectation of masculinity also subjugated men because men are not allowed to express their emotion only through anger.If a man does not show his emotions, his sensitive side, he is berated for being detached from the essence of what society really constitutes a human being.If he displays his emotions, he is criticized for being "unmasculine", whereas emotional behavior in girls tends to be expected and accepted.However, if a male decides to expose his emotions, he is labeled as a "sissy" and viewed as not equal to other men who demonstrate more valor and bravery. Hence, to show emotions is a sign of weakness and society view this as abnormal or inferior for men.Furthermore, society links a sensitive man to homosexuality.If a man is overly sensitive or fragile, he is perceived as a "queer", who is at odd with the "normal, the legitimate, the dominant" definition of masculinity (Halperin, 144).In the film "Orlando", Orlando shows his feminine side when he shows compassion and love for his enemy.He forgets the cult of chivalry, in which he should have been honorable, courageous and bold since these are noble qualities associated with manliness. It is important to realize that men are emotional and they do cry.When a man suffers a tragedy or is going through difficult problems emotionally, the thing that he needs to do is to step back from them emotionally, to distance himself from his own emotions in order to gain an objective rational perspective on his emotions.Despite the fact that men may express their sensitive side, that does not mean that they are homosexual or less than a man.

In conclusion, the social expectation of masculinity demands aggression in males and promotes a hierarchy, competition, and dominance in society.Although masculinity has its benefits to the masculine world, it subjugates them because it creates an unrealistic expectation on men and it encourages men to be violent and aggressive in their behaviour.Therefore, it is important to change the oppressive reality of patriarchal, authoritarian societies because the changes in these societies will serve as a means to discharge the oppressive and violet behaviour men possess.

Please note that this sample paper on Gender is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Gender, we are here to assist you.Your cheap research papers on Gender will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil

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Latin America today has many inequalities in its social and racial classes.In many Latin American countries, the most highly populated areas are in the slums of the major cities.Mexico City, Sao Paolo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, all four of these cities have population masses near the outskirts of the city limits.These areas are mostly lower-class, sometimes below poverty-level people who have no other means of shelter over their heads except for some cardboard boxes, and if they're lucky, some plywood or cement blocks. Why are there so many people in these areas?The answer is mass urbanization, which has taken Brazil, among other Latin American countries, to a new level of poverty among the dwellers of these urban areas.These people face extreme racial and social challenges everyday, and the end of these inequalities and challenges does not appear to be coming anytime soon.

In Brazil, like the rest of Latin America, there are many social challenges and inequalities.Very little of the population has most of the money, and the majority are left to live just above, or even below poverty level.Population rises in Brazil since 160 have become enormous, and the majority of the children being born in this period have been born into lower-class families.Because of this, Brazil now has one of the worst population and social class inequalities in the world.However, the challenges that face Brazil today are not solely caused by social class.Some of these problems are also caused by racial discrimination, racial stereotypes, and miscedination, or the mixing of racial groups.Now, more than ever, Brazil must take a step forward to help those people who have been left behind because of their racial lineage, their family's social history, and even their ability earn a minimum-wage level income.

Income distribution in Brazil is very lopsided.Most of the population, about 6%, earns less than five times the minimum wage per month, including .5% who live with no income whatsoever .In Brazil, the minimum wage level is considered to be $75 per month .This is equivalent to about forty cents per hour, for a forty-hour workweek.In this sense, three in five people in Brazil live on about 75 dollars or less per month.To put this in perspective, a minimum wage earner in the United States earns approximately 885 dollars per month .In addition to this, about 85% of the population in Brazil earn less than ten times the minimum wage level per month .This leaves 15% of the 170 million Brazilians who earn more than ten times the minimum monthly wage.This 15% is considered the upper class, where as the middle class is made up of about 18% of the population, leaving an astonishing 67% of Brazilians in the lower class .Adding to this inequality is the fact that the percentage share of income by group has become further and further from being even.In 160, the poorest 50% of the population earned only 17% of the income, while the richest 10% earned .6% of the income.Even more unequal is that the richest 1% of the population in 160 earned 1.1% of the income .These numbers have not improved since then.In fact, by 170, the richest 1% earned 14% of the income, and the poorest 50% earned only one percent more at 15%.By 180, the richest 1% was earning 4% more than the poorest 50% .These trends continued through the 180s and 10s.In 16, it was determined that the ratio of people represented by the top 0% of income earners to the lowest 0% of the income earners was 5.5 in Brazil.Also by 16, the top ten percent of income earners earned almost half of the national income of Brazil (47.6%) .This inequality of income distribution in Brazil shows why there is such a large lower class, and such a small percentage of Brazilians who live in the upper class.

The reason for such an unequal distribution of income in Brazil"points to deeper historical causes than these recent [181-15] decades, including a grossly uneven distribution of land ownership" .In fact, most of the people in Brazil do not own much land.Vast majorities of the population, those in the lower class, own nothing more than the shelter they have over their heads.In most cases, the "favelas" or slums on the outskirts of the larger cities hold most of the population.In the whole of Latin America, 7% of the populations live in urban areas .It is no different in Brazil.In fact, almost 80% of Brazilians live in urban areas .These areas are mostly cities of 500,000 or more, and the poorest of the people in each city live towards the outskirts of the city limits.These areas are densely populated, mostly filled with the lower class and extremely poor.Custom Essays on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil

The reason that so many of the poor move into the same areas, is because that is where they might be able to find work.The poor in Brazil "make their homes, however precariously, close in [to the city], because that is where they find work, shops, and a modicum of services" .These neighborhoods have become so poor that now Brazil is trying to come up with ways in which they can help clean up these "favelas".These are the areas that have the least amount of schooling, the lowest possible incomes and in some cases no income.The houses in these slums are sometimes made out of cardboard, sometimes wood, and sometimes cement blocks.The slums have the highest crime rates, and they are not looking any better for the future than they are now.

The racial breakdown in Brazil is also very unequal.Out of approximately 170 million people living in Brazil, a majority, 54%, is considered, and considers themselves white.5.4% are considered black, and .% are "pardos" some kind of mixture between races.Less than one percent of the population is of Native Brazilian Indian or Asian descent .This breakdown in race is mostly the cause of white Europeans conquering Braziland then migrating to Brazil in later years, especially after World War II.However, these numbers may be misconstrued, because social class and income also determine what color Brazilians consider themselves to be.For example, "in Brazil, very dark-skinned persons who are also poor are likely to be thought of-and to classify themselves-as black, but high-status persons of the same skin tone are more likely to be thought of-and to classify themselves-as "pardo" or some other term closer to the white end of the color continuum" .This method of thinking shows that skin color and appearance are not the only factors in social rank, or even racial class.

The average household in Brazil has .4 people in it.For the 67% of Brazilians living in the lower class, this means an average of almost two people live in each room of a house.While most (5%) of Brazil now has electricity, only 76% of the population has safe water to drink, and only 5% have plumbing in their home .However, these numbers only show the whole of Brazil.Studies have now shown that the color of your skin in Brazil can mean certain advantages or disadvantages, depending on what skin color a person has or is considered to have.Among whites in Brazil, 8% have safe water, and 6% have plumbing.Among blacks and "pardos", only 67% have safe drinking water, and 40% have plumbing .This shows that the color, or perceived color, of one's skin in Brazil has an effect on what kind of living conditions one has.With this in mind, being white in Brazil gives one the best chance at a long, successful, and healthy life in Brazil.There are also some other areas in which whites in Brazil have a distinct advantage over blacks and "pardos".These areas include income, life expectancy, and education.

The first thing that all Brazilians, regardless of skin color and social class, must face is living past the age of five years old.While the life expectancy in Brazil is now up to 68.4 years, there is still a .5% infant mortality rate, and a 6% under 5-years old mortality rate .However, whites are expected to live an average of seven years longer than blacks or "pardos".This is mostly because the whites in Brazil, in general, have better jobs, are in a higher social class, and have more education and education possibilities.Whites that are born into higher income class families also have an even longer life expectancy than blacks and "pardos" who are born into a higher income class family.While the life expectancy increases according to the income level of the home in which they are born into for blacks, whites, and "pardos"; it is a significantly larger increase in white families than in black or "pardo" families .

The color of one's skin in Brazil also has an influence on the level of education a child will receive, and the possibilities for a child to even go to school.While only 5.5% of Brazilians are still enrolled in school at the age of sixteen, 56% of white children are enrolled at 16, but only % of black and "pardo" children of the same age are enrolled in school .An even more significant inequality among racial classes in Brazil is that the average white child in Brazil receives overmore years of enrollment in a school than blacks and "pardos" .Although 5% of Brazilian children between the ages of seven and fourteen are enrolled in school, there is still a 1% illiteracy rate among Brazilians.This shows that whites in Brazil have a distinct advantage in education and chances for education than blacks and "pardos" in Brazil.

While racial and social classes determine where a person in Brazil might live, their have been some changes in Brazil, in an attempt to make living conditions for the 67% of the population in the lower class a little bit better.In recent years, their have been some tries at land reform, that is, taking large quantities of unused or dormant land from the owners and making it available to the poor at premium prices.One of the most successful attempts at land reform has been in Curitiba, a city of 1.4 million people located in southern Brazil.They implemented a plan for the city to build housing plots for the people of the lower classes and slums.After this, the city sold the plots to the poor at very low mortgage rates, and let the people build the rest of their house in any way they could.The city would add sewage and electricity, and the homeowner was responsible for the rest.This worked very well because the people were able to use the electricity and sewage to their own advantage and begin to build their house on their own terms.Another land reform plan that was not as successful was the land reform project in Sao Paolo.In this reform, the people of the poor areas were moved into a barracks, while the state rebuilds their homes in the same location and sells them at low interest mortgage rates.This was not as successful because the poor did not have the money to pay for even these simple homes, even at the low rate.

This need for land reform has been brought on Brazil because of the mass migration to the larger cities of Brazil that has been occurring since 160.Since that time, the urban population in Brazil has increased from 44.7 million to 78.4 million in 11 .For example, the population of Sao Paulo, Brazil and Latin America's largest city has increased from only .8 million in 160 to over 16 million today.The same is true for Rio de Janeiro, where the population in 160 was .4 million.Today the city has over 10 million .While these two cities are among the extreme cases of urban migration, in total, 0 million people in Brazil have moved from rural areas to urban areas since 170 .These people have moved to the city to try and gain a better life for themselves and their children, knowing that they might not be able to find jobs or a place to live.One positive thing about the urbanization movement is that the education that urban dwellers receive is somewhat better than those in the rural areas can get.In 11, 86% of Brazilians living in urban areas were literate, but only 60% of those in rural areas could read and write , giving yet another reason for Brazilians to move from rural areas to urban areas.

At the same time, these mass movements into the urban areas are the source of the overpopulation in Brazilian and Latin American cities.As more and more people move into these cities, there becomes less and less space to put them.Enter the slums.Most of these areas have houses that are so small, they look like jail cells.They are built extremely close to each other, and in a lot of cases, they were built on land that did not belong to the builders.Another problem that has developed because of this mass migration is that of finding jobs for all of the people that are constantly moving into the cities.Without the jobs to support all of the people that are moving into their cities, the Brazilian economy has seen it's per capita income suffer.The average income per month in Brazil is only $17 .This includes all classes, and all income earners, whether minimum wage level or the highest income earners in the country.This further shows that the distribution of income is not even.When over 0% of Brazilians earn less than the national average per month, a great inequality in income distribution is obvious.

These social and racial challenges that face Brazil have taken their toll on the Brazilian social classes.The perception of one's color in Brazil does not necessarily tell what skin color a person has, or even what racial background a person might have.There is mass inequality in income distribution, in schooling and chances for an education, and in life expectancy among those of different colors and different social classes.Brazil certainly has many problems ahead of them, but the important thing is how they deal with these problems in the future.

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Please note that this sample paper on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The U-2 Spy Plane

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Many Americans regard the Cold War as a time when tensions ran high and war seemed inevitable; when the entire world was torn between two superpowers. What the common citizen did not know, however, was just how real the war was. There was a secret war being fought between America and the Soviet Union at the time and this took the form of arms buildup, the Space Race, and most notably, espionage. One important aspect of the constant spy game between the two countries was the introduction of the American's U- high altitude spy plane. This innovation gave the Americans a distinct advantage over the Communist Russians, but the project was kept secret from the American people. In fact, the American public only became aware of the existence of the U- after one had been shot down during a secret espionage mission over the Soviet Union.The crises stirred up a great amount of controversy and some of the American people and all of Russian Ambassadors felt that it was an unjustifiable intrusion into the Soviet Union's territory. However, because of the technological advances made and the important information discovered as a result of the U-'s missions, its use was justifiable in the cold war and it was, in fact, a very important tool for the American government, despite its controversy.

"The U- was, indeed one of the CIA's greatest intelligence achievements. In fact, it may be one of the greatest achievements of any intelligence service of any nation." ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). This quote, spoken by George Tenet, former director of the CIA, summarizes what the U- accomplished. However, this only came about through months of hard work and research. President Dwight Eisenhower approved the U- project in 154. The project was proposed as a means of gaining information on

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the growing Soviet threat ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). As a budget, the U- project was granted $5 million to build 0 planes (resulting to just over $1 million per plane) (Sullivan ). The concept of a high altitude spy plane was first introduced at the end of WWII and was finally given a means with which to become reality (Sullivan 1). So, in December of 154, the direction of the project was granted to Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and work on the plane began at the Lockheed "Skunk Works" (Sullivan 1). In order to keep its construction secret from the American public and from possible Soviet spies, the U- was designed under the guise of being a utility plane, hence the 'U' prefix ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" 1). Custom Essays on The U-2 Spy Plane

The U- spy plane would be the most expensive project undertaken by the CIA at that time. A large part of the expense was the fact that the U- would use only the latest photographical and surveillance technology and equipment. Not only that, but it also included the latest fuel and engine advances as well ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). The camera that was used by the spy plane to take pictures from 70,000 feet in the air was designed by Edward Land and cost an estimated $57,000 to develop alone (Sullivan, 1). Because the spy plane was expected to complete the flight over the Soviet Union with no stops or refueling times (a total range of about 6,50 miles, it would need to be both super light, and extremely fuel efficient ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" ). Not only that, but the plane was planned and designed to fly at an unprecedented 70,000 feet in order to stay out of reach of the Soviets' anti air guns and planes (Pocock 4). In order to meet the extremely lightweight requirements that would be necessary to obtain such a high altitude and distance many staples of an airplane were not included in the design of the U-.

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Among the list of things that the U- did not come equipped with was an ejector seat for the pilot (Kent 56). It is thought by some circles that there was a dual-reason behind the choice to not have a means of ejection for the pilot. Yes it would conserve weight on the aircraft and, in turn, fuel, but it has been suggested that the American government had an ulterior motive in this matter. If there were no ejector seats, then there would be no surviving pilot if the U- were to crash. It was feared that if a live U- pilot was captured by the Russians then he would be tortured without mercy and forced to give up technological secrets of the United States (Pedlow ). American officials and President Eisenhower didn't want to take this risk so the ejector seat was not included in the plane. The developers of the plane also promised that no pilot of a U- spy plane would be captured (Pedlow 6).

In other efforts to save weight on the plane, it was constructed with extremely long, lightweight wings. They were also very fragile and would crumple like paper under any substantial impact. The tail was held on by only three steel bolts, making it vulnerable to breakage as well (Pocock 47). With the "long, high aspect ratio wings", the U- was given some of the traits of a glider to give it a longer range and carry as meager of an amount of fuel as possible ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" 4). With an extremely lightweight body and no counter-measures, the U- relied solely upon its capability to fly above other planes, specifically Russian MiGs, to keep it safe ("A Rev. in Intelligence" ). After plans were complete the first U- took 88 days to build and made its first flight in August of 155 (Sullivan 1).

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After development of the spy plane was completed, all that was left for the American government was actually using it, and the U- became an effective tool for America such that it was indeed justifiable in its covert operation. The U-'s mission statement was to analyze the extent of the Soviet Union ballistic missile threat. In short, photograph any Soviet arms factories and also any completed missiles that were present on the ground ("A Rev. in Intelligence" ). To this effect, the U- missions began on July 4, 156, launching from Wiesbaden Air Base in Western Germany (Orlov ). The first flight was a success. It passed over the entire landmass of the Soviet Union taking substantial amounts of pictures of the Russian's weapons factories and actual military strength (Orlov ). However, something happened that the Americans did not expect. The U- was detected by Russian radar. It was thought that the plane flew so high and was so small that it would be overlooked by the Russian military. However, the Soviet Union did in fact know, that they were being spied on and protested vehemently against the intrusion of their airspace (Kent 18). That is all they could do though, since they had no available counter-measures that could shoot down planes that flew so high. They were left to protest through diplomatic channels to the American government, who was not about to relinquish their new powerful tool of surveillance. During the ten days after July 4, 156, the U-'s made five incursions into USSR airspace and obtained hundreds of photographs of Russian airfields and shipyards. The pictures came as a relief to American officials as it was revealed that the amount of strategic bombers and actual ballistic missiles the Soviets controlled was far less then the estimated number and also far less then the amount the Americans controlled. While this eased the fears of the American

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government, it did nothing to quell the worries of the American public, who were unaware of the surveillance flights into the Soviet Union (Orlov ).

Though the amount of strategic airplanes and ballistic missiles was less then the anticipated amount, the number of nuclear submarines was much larger. It appeared that the Russian military had been concentrating its money in submarine research and construction, perhaps for use against the continental United States (Pocock 5).

The U- flights were a great success and their pictures provided a useful tool for the American government. Though the American public never knew about them, they did a great deal to ensure American safety and allowed officials to make informed decisions concerning the Soviets. Instead of rushing to war on "assumptions" that the Soviets had a larger military, the Americans could instead, allow themselves a measure of relaxation, for they were in fact, not in as significant a danger as they had originally perceived. The U- flights guaranteed the safety of the American people and for that reason they were justified for use in the Cold War. The flights may have violated Russian airspace but it was all in an effort to become informed of their enemies capabilities and be able to better protect the peace and freedom that Americans lived under.

While the Soviets could not militarily respond to the U- planes' intrusion of their airspace, that did not stop them from establishing a new branch of the military in early 160. Called the Strategic Missile Forces, its specific mission was to develop a new generation of anti aircraft weaponry particularly with the idea of countering the U- (Orlov 5). Soviets began deploying an increasing amount of strategic missiles, building new SAM (surface-to-air missiles) sites, and equipping their forces with advanced radar,

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all in an effort to combat the U- intrusions (Orlov 4). However, for many years these efforts proved to be only a mild deterrent to scheduled U- flyovers. Diplomacy remained the Soviets only option. Their negotiations and protests gained a brief pause in the flights in 156, but they resumed again in 157 (Orlov 5).

In response to the Americans' domination of the sky, the Soviets turned to their space program. They made fantastic breakthroughs in the fields of rocketry and space travel, hoping to use this advantage as a lever to help put a stop to U- flyovers. In fact, it was believed by the Americans that the Soviets' ultimate goal was to put a nuclear device into space capable of attacking the United States with them being unable to counter it (Orlov 4).

Despite the edge that the Americans had held over the Soviets for so long concerning the U- missions, that gap began to lessen with time. Soviets eventually developed an anti-air missile that was capable of tracking aircraft in high altitudes (Orlov 6). This upgrading of Soviet weaponry made U- flights increasingly risky. There were reports from pilots of missiles fired from the ground coming much closer to the planes then previously had been thought possible (Orlov 7). There were even reports of a spy in the U- program who was handing over the secrets of the aircraft to the Russians. It seemed that the communist nation may soon develop their own version of the U- spy plane, possibly one with offensive weapons to counter the Americans' (Kent ).

The tensions between America and the Soviet Union continued to grow until finally it was decided that a summit must be held to avoid war. The leaders of the countries prepared to meet in Paris to discuss a possible cut down on the stockpile of

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armaments in both countries (Pocock ). Because of the sensitivity of this summit and the fact that the frail negotiations to hold it could collapse at any time, the U- flights were suspended. The last one was scheduled to fly on May 1st by a veteran pilot, Francis Gary Powers (Sullivan ).

Powers flight was immediately detected upon entrance to Soviet airspace. Unbeknownst to him was the fact that the Soviets had been sucessfully testing a new type of SAM missile that was capable of homing in on aircraft at high altitudes (Orlov 5). A group of MiG's shadowed Power's entire flight in Soviet airspace and radioed his position to Russian military command (Sullivan ). Powers was shot down by an anti-aircraft missle over Sverdlosk. He crashlanded and survived unscathed (Sullivan ). Not only was Powers unable to activate the self-destruct charges that would destroy his aircraft to prevent the technology from falling into Soviet hands but he also did not ingest his cyanide pill to commit suicide (Sullivan 4). As expected, Powers was captured by the KGB and held in Moscow where it was "uncertain" what information the Russians extracted from him; the American government assumed that Powers had been killed on impact and fed a cover story to the American public of an "accidental crash" in northern Russia (Pocock 67). The peace summit was to continue as planned. However, during the peace talks themselves, the Soviet Union expressed their anger at having their airspace violated by U- spy planes. The American government denied this claim and it was then that the Russians brought Powers into the summit, alive and well. This, of course, was a humiliating experience for America and the peace talks collapsed (Pocock 71). Not only

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that, but President Eisenhower lost creditability with the American people because of the fact that he had denied the U- project existed and he was now shown to be lying.

Despite the dire ramifications that the Powers episode had on the peace talks between the USSR and America, it cannot be refuted that without the U- spy plane a war could have easily occurred because America did not know of Russia's weapon capability. The U- was an important tool in this aspect because it allowed the Americans to acquire photographical evidence of Russia's weapon sites. Despite the controversey that arose from the use of the spy plane, it was in fact justifiable in its use in order to protect America from getting involved in a costly feud with the Soviet Union during the Cold War Era.

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Staff Center for the Study of Intelligence, 184.

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Brasseys, Inc., 170.

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