How Does Advertising Work

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How does advertising work?

There are numerous ways through which people are persuaded to buy their necessities or even luxuries. It is especially through these persuasive actions of the marketers, publicists and producers that advertising " an active strategy of selling and marketing" (P. Falk 1765 in Buy this Book) became the means of selling the products. However, since humans are complex beings having many different habits and patterns, it is of utmost importance that these patterns and habits are identified and understood for efficient advertising. Thus, it is through the Manchester model that in this essay I will attempt to argue some aspects of advertising, which does not only revolve around simple TV ads but also draws from production through to reception. I will also argue that advertising does encounter difficulties that I will review as its criticisms. I therefore will not be using the Hypodermic Syringe or Two Step-Flow model to analyze advertising.

Paul Taylor et al writes "advertising agencies normally prefer a market research classification which groups people along occupational lines which reflect consumption patterns, spending power and life styles". (P. Taylor et al 151). In other words producers and advertisers are not simply producing for everyone but for different segments of people within the audience. It is for this reason that the way in which people consume and spend is of great importance to the advertisers and producers. This is because it helps the producers to make their advertisement the most efficient. We can illustrate this argument using the example below and simultaneously exploring the way in which advertisements are produced. (P. Taylor et al 15).

In production the aim is to indulge people to buy the idea or product. Sometimes the product or idea is manufactured so as to openly advertise its related item such as in the case of fashion shows promoting clothes that are mostly directed towards the consumers with more purchasing power. However in other circumstances of production the idea of the product is hidden within a broader picture. Lury supports this argument from a Marxist perspective when she argues, " Marx used the term fetishism of commodities to describe the disguising or masking of commodities whereby the appearance of goods hides the story of those who made them and how they were made" (C.Lury 1641). Then not only the clothes are being advertised in a fashion show for example, but rather more importantly the culture, lifestyle, history and materialism is being advertised but in disguise. The above was thus an essential tool in the cold war for the transmission of western capitalistic ideology. (C.Lury 16).

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Thus as the model emphasizes, through segmentation producers use the manner in which people consume not only to know how and what to produce but also to circulate, sell and distribute their products or ideas especially in cases where they have manufactured new products and ideas. (P. Taylor et al 15)

When we talk about distribution for a particular audience we can use the children as an illustration since it is well known that they learn through exploration and discovery, thus the latter are used as method to induce children to consume newly made products. In a local advertisement, the setting of children in a spaceship on a mission of exploration was the tool employed to lead children to discover the new snack called 'double cheese curls'. As children are fans of television the means of distribution of the product was indeed television. The result was that children were good consumers of the product. Thus for advertising to work the producers need to identify their audience and the means of circulation and distribution carefully this often comprises of the television, radio, magazines, internet etc. (P. Taylor et al 15)

Even if the consumption pattern is drawn out it is of uttermost importance that what the audience consumes carries a meaning to which he can identify himself. Thus the exchange values attached to the product are essential if it is to be bought when advertised. Often different categories of commodities are used with different types of values to amplify the coolness, morality, traditionalism etc, which are coded within the advertising of a product. Therefore messages are conveyed through diverse signs and symbols known as semiotics that people have to decode as Stuart Hall argues. Semiotics is also used on advertising destinations especially for exotic islands such as Seychelles. As a result, meanings are attributed to a product, this is why Jones and Jones argue, " we can only make sense of a sign when it is set in a meaningful context". (Jones and Jones 1171).

Additionally semiotics can also have an effect on the emotions; this results in emotions being used when advertising a product, to evoke certain feelings of belonging, sympathy, security or shock. Many products and even musical shows held for the aid of orphans carried a greater impact when princess Diana or her memory was used as a popular figure for its advertisement. This promoted a sense of sympathy, sadness and morality compelling the consumers to belong to the same group as Lady Diana and thus participating and buying for a good cause. Often people such as Mother Theresa or Princess Diana are used because of their popularity and nobleness to invite people to contribute towards many activities and to feel moral satisfaction. Hence popularity and authenticity are tools used to influence people into buying, consuming or supporting an idea. (G. Branston and R. Stafford 00).

However if the producer intends to make the commodity 'worldwide' it cannot solely rely on the promotion of its product but also on its brand, thus "branding associates certain meanings with product"(G. Branston and R. Stafford 007).One might argue that consumers tend to consume and buy to soothe feelings of anxiety and fear from being insecure and deprived of their essential needs. Branding then comes as a guarantor that even before use, things will be better. Thus the Virgin Company took to establishing itself in almost all aspects of the consumer's life by advertising thus selling its name before its product inspiring a sense of security. This is common in the promotion of its logo on different items that it produces such as t-shirts and also donations or sponsors that it offers. (G. Branston and R. Stafford 00).

But how does governance fit into advertising 's manner of application? In order to pass on messages and ideas, producers need to have modes of transmission, which include TV, radio, newspapers, magazines internet etc. Power and popularity are key factors that help into the production of advertisements. Therefore a person such as Rupert Murdoch can be of good influence to the audience, as he possesses not only ownership but also a certain degree of control over the media. Another interesting aspect of governance in advertising is the mere fact that technology can make it possible for the sale of products to a person directly. This is because information about a person can be obtained at only a click away on a computer database. In other words a great deal of brainwashing is used in order to get to the desired effect of advertising. (C.Lury 16).

The last phase of this model that we will argue about advertising is the reception or response. Advertising thus works by producing discourses about particular objects or ideologies where one of such is the way that the audience undeniably comprised of women comes to perceive women themselves as sexual objects to men as well as seen in the home. (S. Thornham 000). Interestingly then, it invites the consumer to change consumption pattern and adopt one that matches better with the evolution in capitalist production and consumption which in turn is being reified. Thus on reception the consumer buys into a different culture, which will influence his consumption at a very significant extent. (C.Lury 16).

Nonetheless after seeing the working aspects of advertising we now come to its critical aspect, when we attack its position about production. Often, 'Over production' of products hampers the real effect of advertising. This is such because when there's over production, not all the commodities have the chance to produce the desired effect and the audience often feels misguided and indecisive. Ultimately the consumer does not buy what is needful and useful for the value of his money and often takes more time than intended to decide upon a commodity. Yet as Branston and Stafford argue "it defends itself by arguing that it helps us to be 'rational consumers'". (Branston and Stafford 0067). But in reality the audience becomes less rational because of too much of the product for example shampoos to choose from are being advertised. Rather than being efficient at choice the advertisements often slows decision and rationality. (Branston and Stafford 00).

Human beings are very unpredictable. Even if there is much research done to understand how people react there is still the element of uncertainty when dealing with humans. Thus one other critique is the assumption that the market research can predict the reactions of the consumer is thrown into question, since it is very important to keep up with every day reactions of the audience. Thus keeping up with the consumer proves to be an impossible task in itself. As a consequence advertisers are faced with uncertainties that they often cannot solve or overcome. This proves to be one of the downfalls of advertising and undoubtedly a challenge to the producers and advertisers. (C.Lury 16).

Semiotics is one other area where much can be criticized. This is because we can argue that it is not always easy or straightforward to understand the coded messages being conveyed through those numerous signs and symbols. One of the major reasons for this is that producers and advertisers overestimate the educative and discerning skills of the readers and assumes that they will be able to comprehend what is being transmitted. (V. Nightingale 16).

So, occasionally the images, signs and symbols give the audience limited range of readings because of their prior education and therefore makes it, that the reader cannot understand the intended message and thus acquire a different meaning to the originally intended one. This happened with one of the advertisement where Russ Abbot the comedian was used as an actor in an ad for Castella Cigars, and instead of understanding what the ad was about the audience understood it as a joke. This is termed as Leakey boundaries by O'Donohoe, between advertising and cultural forms. (S. O'Donohoe from Buy this Book 17).

One other aspect of advertising that brings undesired effects and that producers and advertisers have to deal with is negative advertising. We can relate negative advertising to the different messages conveyed to the community through music and songs. As young people are vulnerable and very flexible many musical groups use youth vulnerability to promote drugs, sex, racism and violence. Thus production and advertising often have to watch out for the negative influences or contradictions of their production for this brings about what Schroder calls "The Cynical Response"(K. Schroder from Buy this Book 178). That is the audience resents what the producers are promoting through their advertisements and productions because it does not take into consideration the interest of the community. As a result the advertisement can produce negative responses. (K. Schroder from Buy this Book 17).

In conclusion one can come to realize that advertising plays a major role into our everyday lives. This is essentially portrayed into the way that we consume and behave vis-à-vis advertising. We cannot therefore shut ourselves away form advertisement for to a greater extent that we might want to acknowledge it is almost impossible to live in a world without advertising. In analyzing the Manchester model I have explored only some of the ways in which advertising works. This forces us to come to the realization that whether we like it or not we are influenced beyond our own control to abide to the domination of advertisement in our lives. Be it in production, circulation or exchange-value advertising is able to revolutionize the way we use to perceive things into new discourses for its own benefit. (Branston and Stafford 00)

Although, advertisers, publicists and marketers encounter several objections these do not flush out the scope that advertising has on its consumers but rather presents new ways in which the producers and advertisers need to work in order to keep their business going. Advertisement can be of great benefit to consumers but Branston and Stafford brings us to realize a very pertinent position that might be one of overwhelming concern. One might think that if advertising induces unlimited consumption we can come to a point where we are so indulged in capitalistic consumption that we might lose our identity through the incessant search to belong and feel secure through consumption. (Branston and Stafford 00).

Bibliography

Branston Gill and Stafford, 00, Studying the Media, Routledge, UK.

Jones Emma and Jones Marsha, 1, Mass Media, chapter , Palgrave New York.

Lury Celia, 16 Consumer Culture, chapter , Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers, UK.

Nava Mica et al, 17, Buy this Book, part 1 and 4, Routledge, London and New York.

Nightingale Virginia, 16, Studying Audiences The Shock of the Real, chapter1, Routledge, London and New York.

Taylor Paul et al, 15, Sociology in Focus, chapter , Bath Press.

Thornham S, 000, Identity Shopping Women and Consumer Culture in Feminist Theory and Cultural Studies, London Arnold.

Bibliography

Branston Gill and Stafford, 00, Studying the Media, Routledge, UK.

Jones Emma and Jones Marsha, 1, Mass Media, chapter , Palgrave New York.

Lury Celia, 16 Consumer Culture, chapter , Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers, UK.

Nava Mica et al, 17, Buy this Book, part 1 and 4, Routledge, London and New York.

Nightingale Virginia, 16, Studying Audiences The Shock of the Real, chapter1, Routledge, London and New York.

Taylor Paul et al, 15, Sociology in Focus, chapter , Bath Press.

Thornham S, 000, Identity Shopping Women and Consumer Culture in Feminist Theory and Cult

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Customer service

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on customer service. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality customer service paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in customer service, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your customer service paper at affordable prices with !Before I get into further analysis of my own personal experience, I am going to explain about different characteristics that are involved in customer service. Most businesses will tell you that quality customer service is the keystone to success. An essential component of outstanding customer service is the possession of a great staff. Larger companies may be weighed down by employee handbooks that specify the customer service guidelines. Independent, smaller businesses have the advantage of selecting employees that possess excellent customer service know how and capabilities. The customer service department should also be extremely familiar with the inventory, services, and policies entailed in the store. Knowledgeable employees satisfy customers.

For customer service face-to-face, employees should concentrate on their own appearance. A sloppy look, chomping on gum or an employee lacking hygiene can negatively reflect on the company. Having a dress code or grooming evaluations can motivate employees to excel in face to face situations. Every small aspect involved can affect the business as a whole.

Once the right staff has been hired, there has to be an example set for them to follow. Rewards are a good incentive to inspire employees to go the extra mile. Establishing employee of the month recognition programs, giving gifts, or verbally acknowledging accomplishments are good ways to drive the staff toward the set out goals of a business. Some companies train their staff by asking them to put themselves in the customer's position. When people consider their own preferences, they may be more apt to see where the customer is coming from. It is important to have the dual goal in mind of keeping the customer happy and at the same time working toward benefiting the business. One way to keep this practice is the LEAR method of handling customers.LEAR is an acronym for Listen, Empathize, Ask Questions, and Resolve the Problem. All employees should try and practice this method of handling customer problems, with the end goal being to send the customer away in a good mood. Treating people the way they want to be treated is generally a good approach to a problem.

With a well trained and qualified staff, the customer service department has a better chance at success. In my experience, handling customers is much easier when a step by step exact approach given to the employee, but also giving them the freedom to integrate their own methods that can correspond with the employee's personality and the personality of the individual customer. In general, the employee should first listen to what the customer has to say without interrupting them. At all times, the employee should stay very calm, it takes two to make an argument. They should give an indication that they understand and sympathize with what the customer is saying. The problem then should be logically analyzed.There should be a differentiation between the assumptions, facts, generalizations, and emotions. Try and find out exactly what happened by digging for the facts and not placing blame anywhere. Then, try and read the person better to figure out what the true problem they are having really is. Are they actually angry at what is happening right now, or are they just in a bad mood and looking to release their problems somewhere? One of the easiest questions to ask is What can we do to make this right so you are a happy customer when you walk out the door, when you hang up this phone, etc.? Take full responsibility for finding a satisfying solution, and make sure to see the customer through to ensure they are getting what is owed to them. The response made should call for immediate action to be taken if it is possible, this will make the customer feel important and raise their level of satisfaction.

Many times the problem can be simply solved by letting the customer talk to someone in authority. This also raises the level of satisfaction with a feeling of importance. It is good to never view the problem as insolvable; customers will spread the word of dissatisfaction to other people which will further hurt the business. A good idea is to ensure the customer that methods will be taken to prevent this problem from happening in the future. Employees can make a difference if the customer feels that they are making a difference on the business. Many companies learn that effective service recovery heightens customer loyalty.It costs approximately five times as much money to acquire an existing customer then it does to keep an old one.

Without using these methods, I have found that there are many approaches that make the customer angrier than they were in the first place. One of the best is telling the customer how important they are and how much this call means to the company, and then letting the customer sit on hold forever. It is even better when it is just a recording that interrupts the annoying elevator music on the phone repeating over and over that this call is important to us, remain holding. If this call is so important, why am I on hold for an hour?A business can always keep transferring the customer to different departments, and each department can redirect them. This will make the customer become angry at all of the departments and not just one employee. At least with one employee, the customer may not feel the whole company is unqualified and not helpful. Making the customer explain their problem over and over makes them angrier and angrier. One of the best ways to make a customer irate is to put them on hold for awhile, and then disconnect them. Now they have to call back to get put on hold again? A good example of this problem with miscommunications can be seen in a letter I wrote to Wal-Mart. (See Appendix 1) Not to sound racist, but it is also a good idea to not make the entire customer service department lack in English speaking skills. Customers do not enjoy having to repeat and explain themselves a hundred times and still feel as if they are not being understood correctly. The customer needs to be able to relate to the employee just like the employee needs to relate to the customer. A similar language and culture can greatly improve this relationship. One of the worst things to do is making the customer feel as if they are wrong. But is the customer always right?

The popular customer service motto, "The customer is always right" has the right message, but is not fully accurate. I feel that customers should be treated as if they are right at most times, but certain circumstances should not be tolerated. The customer has the "right" to be in control, but not the full power of always being "right." Sometimes the customer is wrong, and even when this is proven, they can not accept it. Even when the customer is wrong, it is still a good idea to do whatever possible to make them feel better about the situation. Saying no to a customer is basically saying we no longer want your business, because in most circumstances that is the result. Having concise return policies and warranties are ways to protect the business. Most people are reasonable and want what they are entitled to. There are a small percentage of customers that can just not be helped and are never satisfied. There are just certain whiny nonstop-complaining customers who have nothing better to do that ruin other people's days. They scream, curse, and treat the employees like dirt. No matter what is done for them, it is not good enough. After a certain point, these customers just need to be written off. Of course, it should take awhile to reach this point. Only when completely necessary should a customer not get the royal treatment they deserve. When the customer is written off, they should not receive the much deserved screaming, verbally (or even physically) abusive response. As good as it would feel to smack the customer across the face and tell them where they can shove the product they have a complaint with, the reputation of the business is still at stake. Nicely, they should be told that there is nothing that can be done and if they wish to discontinue their business, then we are sorry but that is their only option.

There is an entire other group of people that needs to be acknowledged the group of people that do not make any complaints when they are dissatisfied. Up until this project, I had never written a letter of complaint to any company no matter how unhappy I was. However, I was not completely silent. I would spread the word of my dissatisfaction to others and influence their decisions, the same way people have influenced me. I was part of that group of people that companies really need to look out for and have the most difficulty finding. According to findings, the average "wronged" customer will tell eight to sixteen people about a negative experience.To deal with the silent deceiving customers who seem satisfied, the best a company can do is encourage comments and complaints. Pushing people to write down comments helps you hear what all different types of people think, not just the aggressive people who go after what they want and deserve. Showing the quiet customers that you care what they think and will take necessary steps in improving the aspects that are displeasing to them, is an excellent method to get the customers that may have "fallen through the cracks."

Another way to ensure customer satisfaction is to go above and beyond expectations. Giving the customer something they do not expect is an excellent way to keep their satisfaction levels high and increase the company's market awareness. Incentives such as free items, discounts, and coupons are a few obvious ways to accomplish this. Addition services include gift wrapping, delivery, and free samples. A simple example for a retail store is creating a friendly atmosphere by having employees greet customers walking into the store. Smiles and sincerity are essential parts of quality customer service.

I would like to further explain the recent decline in customer service here in America. There has been deregulation in a variety of industries, but consumer rights have been at the bottom of the list. Some of this deregulation has even exempted companies from State Consumer Protection Laws. The tight economy has also impacted the way customers are handled. During a down economy, many cuts are made in companies. One of the first departments to experience the cut is customer service. Customer care is often overlooked when making these budget cuts. Although, management needs to realize that this disregard is going to impact other parts of the company's sales and reputation.

The advancements in technology have been a huge disappointment and aggravation for consumers. Technology is on a steady incline. That's positive, right? Automated voices that can direct calls and answer customers' questions helps cut employees and save money for a company. It probably even exceeds the cost of the new technology, malfunctions, and paying people to install and maintain it. I have had some conversations with these "computers" and have actually had my questions answered. However, I have also experienced the computer have no clue what I was talking about. It kept asking me over and over to restate my question. Now, this wouldn't be a problem if I was given the option to speak to someone. It would be pretty simple if the computer was trained to say, "Since I can't help you, I will redirect you to someone human." Imagine the nerve of a customer actually wishing to speak to a human! How about my eighty-five year old grandma who cannot grasp the concept that she is not talking to a real person, she tells me the lady on the phone is rude and does not understand her. So what should be done about this? Should old people just not be allowed to use the phone? At the age of seventy, should you lose phone privileges?Technology may be advanced, but when it comes to customer service, the proper precautions must be enforced to continually ensure customer satisfaction. Using an automated service to direct calls as opposed to actually solving the problem would be a more intelligent solution.

Now, I have explained the general concepts, by highlighting both the positives and negative aspects, involved in modern day customer service. The next part of my analysis involves the responses I have received from the individual letters I wrote. I had planned to write different forms of letters. My initial thought was that the tone, extent of problem, and the amount of time I had actually put in writing the letter would have an effect. As a result of research into customer service departments, I soon realized that each company trains their customer service representatives to treat problems a certain way. The type of industry would also have a large effect in the business's approach and seriousness of the company's concern. When a letter is received, there is a generic way to approach a solution. Writing a letter or sending an email is the least time-consuming and least stressful method for a customer to do. However, letters may not even be read or the root of the problem may be unclear and misunderstood. It is the best approach to deal with the problem face-to-face; it is the way to get the maximum satisfaction possible. But, it is also the most time-consuming and aggravating. Using the phone may be more effective than a letter, but as I previously mentioned, the phone could also be a huge frustration with the recent technological advancements and customer service representative problems. I chose the letter and email method due to the fact that complaining to over seventy-five companies within my three month time frame was not feasible by another method. Three months was not enough to allot for me visiting each company or spending hundreds of hours on the phone. (See Appendix ) The general tone I used in my letters was very serious and also very upset. I tried to come across as someone who would only complain if it was a big deal and also leave the companies with the threat that my future business was in question. As much as possible, I tried to come across as intellectual and educated about the individual business in question. For example, my letter to Target Corporation (See Appendix ) is very similar to the previous Wal-Mart letter you viewed. However, Target has a customer service policy which I brought up to get my message across. If my letter was actually read closely, they would have seen the seriousness of my complaint.

Please note that this sample paper on customer service is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on customer service, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on customer service will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Gender

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TAKE HOME EXAM

Gender is the cultural dimension of sex, which is a biological material dimension.Like anything in culture, there is nothing true or permanent about gender except it is a historical, dynamic, meaning-making system.Since gender culturally establish correlates of sex, the attribution of gender are based not on an inspection of the sexual organs of individuals but on the judgements of their performance in relation to the culturally constructed gender categories.If a society establishes a structure on the basis of sex and gender, males and females will be granted and limited at the same time to certain privileges.In the Western culture, the social construction of sex and gender has placed social expectation on men.The masculine world is expected to be non-emotional, loud, messy, money makers, math and science oriented and most of all, exhibit assertive behaviours that demonstrate power and authority. As a result, these social expectations on men have valorized and yet subjugated them at the same time, leaving them in a position of an unrealistic reality of masculinity.In this exposition, I will analyze the role that popular culture plays in the early stages of men's lives, household, workforce, educational system and athletics.In the end, I will conclude that although masculinity has its benefits to the masculine world, it also subjugates them because it creates an unrealistic expectation on men and it encourages men to be violent and aggressive in their behaviour.

Much of the ideas about masculinity come from the media.What we see on television or in the movies, what we read in the newspaper or in magazines, what we see on billboards or hear on the radio, reinforces societal expectations of masculinity.The images in popular culture represent men as heroic and strong.It also portrays men as violent and angry, leaders, problem solvers, confident, successful, athletic, lacking sensitivity, and authoritative in the public sphere.As a result, these expectations advance the notion that a 'real man' is one that is demanding or aggressive in getting his desires and goals.Hence, a man is expected to be in his proper sphere of action which is the economic and political arena and as well, he is expected to be the head of the household, for which he must provide for his wife and children.Furthermore, society looks forward to the masculine world to be strong and not admit to any uncertainties because if they do, it is perceived as a sign of weakness.Despite the fact that men are at an advantage in society, they are subjugated and brought under control by these social expectations.

The media images of masculinity are present in a male's life as early as the first stages of infancy.When a baby boy is born, he is distinguished and characterized by his gender before he can take his first breath of life outside his mother's womb.As well, when a baby boy is brought home from the hospital, he is dressed in blue clothes because it helps friends, families, and even strangers to identify the sex of the child.In the article "The construction of Masculinity", Michael Kaufman stated that "masculinity is unconsciously rooted before the age of six, and then positively explodes at adolescence" (Kaufman, 115).With that in mind, men were socialized at a young age by their fathers, mothers, teaches, mentors, friends, and other role models such as television and movies that boys are to play with guns, planes, engage in 'contact' sports, be tough if they get hurt and independent.As a result of ideas, attitudes, behaviours and beliefs that men learnt in their childhood and adolescence, they matured believing that they are to behave in a powerful, active masculine manner (Kaufman, 10).

Cheap College Papers on Gender

Consequently, the social construction of masculinity by the media and the reinforcement of their gender roles by parents valorize men to have an advantage over women in our society as the dominant sex.In society, men dominate institutions such as the church, family, and law.This domination by men has created a patriarchal society, in which it has oppressed and exploited women at every level of reality. Despite the fact that conflict has escalated between male and female, society believes that it is natural for a man to have power, aggression, and authority (Kaufman 110).Furthermore, since men are depicted as the logical thinker and discipliner, this logical framework has served to valorize men in the role of a dictator and control agent.In order for a man to continue to be logical in his life, he has been socialized into rejecting emotions and feelings from the external environment.This is a formula that men must follow in order to be separated mentally and emotionally from all things.With that in mind, men must abstract their world into something that seems disconnected from themselves or anyone else.The purpose of this is to dissect each segment of a problem and reformulate it into a disciplined logical order so it can be used to construct a value system and perform tasks for men.

Nevertheless, men have been valorized into the role as a provider. Society expects men to provide food, shelter, and care to his wife and children. This role valorizes men because it gives them an advantage in the home and the public sphere. Since men are to be the provider, they are encouraged to go out and find work and the women are advised to stay home and take care of the children.As well, men have control in the household because they are expected to be a good father that discipline and set down rules for his home.Since men maintain a patriarchal role in the family, it valorizes them as the driving force that ensures his children perform their responsibilities as he provides love and guidance to them. Hence, the dominant role assumed by men creates a pattern for male activities to be valued higher than female activities and as a result, popular culture images of masculinity becomes extremely difficult to overcome.

Men are also valorized in the workforce because they have tremendous power in the public sphere. As in all pursuits, men see business and other professions as a competition, a battle for dominance.They use their occupation as a means to engage in a competition against other men and female, in order to maintain their high wages. Men are socially responsible because they arrange their combative competition in business that organizes as a limited civil and/or private economic competition.As a result of the masculine world pursuit of power and dominance, men have been socialized into having the responsibility to temper their combative urges in the public economy and be dictators in the political arena.Since men have higher value in society, they enjoy high prestige jobs and job titles.This power and dominance that men have in the workforce has created a gender and wage gap between the sexes.Women who enter the public sphere are forced to compete with men for wages and prestige jobs and since they do not hold the same power and authority as men, they earn significantly less, even if they are more qualified that the opposite sex.

Nonetheless, men valorize the educational system.At university, males and females are channeled into different fields.For example, men are encouraged into the math and science field.In the article "Patriarchy, Scientists, and Nuclear Warriors", Brian Easlea stated that science especially Physics is a "'hard', intellectually difficult subject as opposed to 'soft' ones, such as English or history" (Easlea, 148).Easlea believes that there is a hard-soft spectrum within sciences, in which physics is the hardest, chemistry is in the middle, and biology is at the soft end (Easlea, 148).Men valorize the educational system because science and math are perceived as male orientated subjects since men can reason and intellectually solve problems as oppose to females. As a result, the "aspects of the masculinity of physics is that the men who inhabit this scientific worldparticularly those who are successful in itbehave in culturally masculine ways" (Easlea, 147).Easlea confirms that like "all other hierarchical male-dominated activities, getting to the invariably entails aggressive, competitive behavior" (Easlea, 147).However, if it was not for this institutionalized and socially competitive aggressive behavior, men would not be ranked higher in academics.On that account, men have higher value in the educational system because the educational system reinforces gender stereotypes and sex roles and teachers tend to set assignments which further reinforce masculine behavior.With that in mind, schools socialize males and females into different orientation of life.As a consequence, males and females enter university with gender-linked aspirations and it is these, rather than presumed innate characteristics that allow men to have dominance and authority in society.

The social construction of masculinity also valorizes men in ways of athletics.Since men at an early age are encouraged to participate in sports like football or hockey, they grow up into adulthood with athletic prowess.And since they watch their fathers dote and fawn over a game on television, men are instilled at a young age with the desire to excel physically.As a result, sports valorize men because it teaches them in their childhood to be strong, aggressive and competitive. Through sports, men learn what it means to be masculine and if they show signs of femininity, they are taunted with phrases such as "Don't be a sissy" or "Only girls do that". Furthermore, the valorizing of sports socializes men into having tones, muscular bodies.Health and fitness becomes a concern for men because having a toned and muscular body is seen and depicted in society as the ideal (Bordo, 6).In the article "Reading the slender body", Susan Bordo stated that 'muscles have chiefly symbolized and continue to symbolize power as physical strength" (Bordo, 6).As a result of this ideal male body, men who stay fit through sports and exercise gets their masculinity shaped and molded.

However, although men may have all the power in society, masculinity can be "terrifying fragile because it does not really exist in the sense we are led to think it exists" (Kaufman, 115). Kaufman stated that "masculinity exists as ideology; it exists as scripted behavior; it exists within 'gendered' relationship" (Kaufman, 115).With that in mind, men in society are subjugated by the social construction of masculinity.The standards set out for men have put them in a straightjacket that leads to anger, despair, and often violence.Due to the aggressive and dominating behavior of men, Michael Kaufman believes that 'violence is one aspect of our society's domination by men that, in outcome, if not always in design reinforce that domination" (Kaufman, 10). He also affirmed that the act of violence in the individual man is "acting out relations of sexual power; it is the violence of a societya hierarchical, authoritarian, sexiest, class-divided, militarist, racist, impersonal, crazy society" (Kaufman, 10).

Despite the fact that there is great social prestige with masculinity, many men do not match it or desire to.As a result, men feel subjugated because masculinity has put their traditional gender at risk since it is thought to lead to violence.Men rather than women are central to the symbolism of violence in mass media, sports, and political rhetoric.Since men have an economic advantage over women, they have been given the privilege to defend, which they may defend in violence or may make women vulnerable to violence.It should come as no surprise that men reinforce their domination through violence because at an early age, men were encouraged by popular culture to play with weapons and learn military skills.As well, violent behavior expressed from television and advertising also enforces violence because the images from advertising often use violence towards women.This violence against women is often pushed to the point of encouragement of rape (Kaufman, 116). Sexual harassment or rape occurs when a man feel that his power and status is threatened, for he is angered when he cannot achieve the entitlements of his gender.Therefore, although men rule and fashion society, the reactions to violence only "confirms the negative self-image and the feeling of powerlessness of the fragility, artificiality, and precariousness of masculinity" (Kaufman, 117).

In addition, the social expectation of masculinity also subjugated men because men are not allowed to express their emotion only through anger.If a man does not show his emotions, his sensitive side, he is berated for being detached from the essence of what society really constitutes a human being.If he displays his emotions, he is criticized for being "unmasculine", whereas emotional behavior in girls tends to be expected and accepted.However, if a male decides to expose his emotions, he is labeled as a "sissy" and viewed as not equal to other men who demonstrate more valor and bravery. Hence, to show emotions is a sign of weakness and society view this as abnormal or inferior for men.Furthermore, society links a sensitive man to homosexuality.If a man is overly sensitive or fragile, he is perceived as a "queer", who is at odd with the "normal, the legitimate, the dominant" definition of masculinity (Halperin, 144).In the film "Orlando", Orlando shows his feminine side when he shows compassion and love for his enemy.He forgets the cult of chivalry, in which he should have been honorable, courageous and bold since these are noble qualities associated with manliness. It is important to realize that men are emotional and they do cry.When a man suffers a tragedy or is going through difficult problems emotionally, the thing that he needs to do is to step back from them emotionally, to distance himself from his own emotions in order to gain an objective rational perspective on his emotions.Despite the fact that men may express their sensitive side, that does not mean that they are homosexual or less than a man.

In conclusion, the social expectation of masculinity demands aggression in males and promotes a hierarchy, competition, and dominance in society.Although masculinity has its benefits to the masculine world, it subjugates them because it creates an unrealistic expectation on men and it encourages men to be violent and aggressive in their behaviour.Therefore, it is important to change the oppressive reality of patriarchal, authoritarian societies because the changes in these societies will serve as a means to discharge the oppressive and violet behaviour men possess.

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Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil

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Latin America today has many inequalities in its social and racial classes.In many Latin American countries, the most highly populated areas are in the slums of the major cities.Mexico City, Sao Paolo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, all four of these cities have population masses near the outskirts of the city limits.These areas are mostly lower-class, sometimes below poverty-level people who have no other means of shelter over their heads except for some cardboard boxes, and if they're lucky, some plywood or cement blocks. Why are there so many people in these areas?The answer is mass urbanization, which has taken Brazil, among other Latin American countries, to a new level of poverty among the dwellers of these urban areas.These people face extreme racial and social challenges everyday, and the end of these inequalities and challenges does not appear to be coming anytime soon.

In Brazil, like the rest of Latin America, there are many social challenges and inequalities.Very little of the population has most of the money, and the majority are left to live just above, or even below poverty level.Population rises in Brazil since 160 have become enormous, and the majority of the children being born in this period have been born into lower-class families.Because of this, Brazil now has one of the worst population and social class inequalities in the world.However, the challenges that face Brazil today are not solely caused by social class.Some of these problems are also caused by racial discrimination, racial stereotypes, and miscedination, or the mixing of racial groups.Now, more than ever, Brazil must take a step forward to help those people who have been left behind because of their racial lineage, their family's social history, and even their ability earn a minimum-wage level income.

Income distribution in Brazil is very lopsided.Most of the population, about 6%, earns less than five times the minimum wage per month, including .5% who live with no income whatsoever .In Brazil, the minimum wage level is considered to be $75 per month .This is equivalent to about forty cents per hour, for a forty-hour workweek.In this sense, three in five people in Brazil live on about 75 dollars or less per month.To put this in perspective, a minimum wage earner in the United States earns approximately 885 dollars per month .In addition to this, about 85% of the population in Brazil earn less than ten times the minimum wage level per month .This leaves 15% of the 170 million Brazilians who earn more than ten times the minimum monthly wage.This 15% is considered the upper class, where as the middle class is made up of about 18% of the population, leaving an astonishing 67% of Brazilians in the lower class .Adding to this inequality is the fact that the percentage share of income by group has become further and further from being even.In 160, the poorest 50% of the population earned only 17% of the income, while the richest 10% earned .6% of the income.Even more unequal is that the richest 1% of the population in 160 earned 1.1% of the income .These numbers have not improved since then.In fact, by 170, the richest 1% earned 14% of the income, and the poorest 50% earned only one percent more at 15%.By 180, the richest 1% was earning 4% more than the poorest 50% .These trends continued through the 180s and 10s.In 16, it was determined that the ratio of people represented by the top 0% of income earners to the lowest 0% of the income earners was 5.5 in Brazil.Also by 16, the top ten percent of income earners earned almost half of the national income of Brazil (47.6%) .This inequality of income distribution in Brazil shows why there is such a large lower class, and such a small percentage of Brazilians who live in the upper class.

The reason for such an unequal distribution of income in Brazil"points to deeper historical causes than these recent [181-15] decades, including a grossly uneven distribution of land ownership" .In fact, most of the people in Brazil do not own much land.Vast majorities of the population, those in the lower class, own nothing more than the shelter they have over their heads.In most cases, the "favelas" or slums on the outskirts of the larger cities hold most of the population.In the whole of Latin America, 7% of the populations live in urban areas .It is no different in Brazil.In fact, almost 80% of Brazilians live in urban areas .These areas are mostly cities of 500,000 or more, and the poorest of the people in each city live towards the outskirts of the city limits.These areas are densely populated, mostly filled with the lower class and extremely poor.Custom Essays on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil

The reason that so many of the poor move into the same areas, is because that is where they might be able to find work.The poor in Brazil "make their homes, however precariously, close in [to the city], because that is where they find work, shops, and a modicum of services" .These neighborhoods have become so poor that now Brazil is trying to come up with ways in which they can help clean up these "favelas".These are the areas that have the least amount of schooling, the lowest possible incomes and in some cases no income.The houses in these slums are sometimes made out of cardboard, sometimes wood, and sometimes cement blocks.The slums have the highest crime rates, and they are not looking any better for the future than they are now.

The racial breakdown in Brazil is also very unequal.Out of approximately 170 million people living in Brazil, a majority, 54%, is considered, and considers themselves white.5.4% are considered black, and .% are "pardos" some kind of mixture between races.Less than one percent of the population is of Native Brazilian Indian or Asian descent .This breakdown in race is mostly the cause of white Europeans conquering Braziland then migrating to Brazil in later years, especially after World War II.However, these numbers may be misconstrued, because social class and income also determine what color Brazilians consider themselves to be.For example, "in Brazil, very dark-skinned persons who are also poor are likely to be thought of-and to classify themselves-as black, but high-status persons of the same skin tone are more likely to be thought of-and to classify themselves-as "pardo" or some other term closer to the white end of the color continuum" .This method of thinking shows that skin color and appearance are not the only factors in social rank, or even racial class.

The average household in Brazil has .4 people in it.For the 67% of Brazilians living in the lower class, this means an average of almost two people live in each room of a house.While most (5%) of Brazil now has electricity, only 76% of the population has safe water to drink, and only 5% have plumbing in their home .However, these numbers only show the whole of Brazil.Studies have now shown that the color of your skin in Brazil can mean certain advantages or disadvantages, depending on what skin color a person has or is considered to have.Among whites in Brazil, 8% have safe water, and 6% have plumbing.Among blacks and "pardos", only 67% have safe drinking water, and 40% have plumbing .This shows that the color, or perceived color, of one's skin in Brazil has an effect on what kind of living conditions one has.With this in mind, being white in Brazil gives one the best chance at a long, successful, and healthy life in Brazil.There are also some other areas in which whites in Brazil have a distinct advantage over blacks and "pardos".These areas include income, life expectancy, and education.

The first thing that all Brazilians, regardless of skin color and social class, must face is living past the age of five years old.While the life expectancy in Brazil is now up to 68.4 years, there is still a .5% infant mortality rate, and a 6% under 5-years old mortality rate .However, whites are expected to live an average of seven years longer than blacks or "pardos".This is mostly because the whites in Brazil, in general, have better jobs, are in a higher social class, and have more education and education possibilities.Whites that are born into higher income class families also have an even longer life expectancy than blacks and "pardos" who are born into a higher income class family.While the life expectancy increases according to the income level of the home in which they are born into for blacks, whites, and "pardos"; it is a significantly larger increase in white families than in black or "pardo" families .

The color of one's skin in Brazil also has an influence on the level of education a child will receive, and the possibilities for a child to even go to school.While only 5.5% of Brazilians are still enrolled in school at the age of sixteen, 56% of white children are enrolled at 16, but only % of black and "pardo" children of the same age are enrolled in school .An even more significant inequality among racial classes in Brazil is that the average white child in Brazil receives overmore years of enrollment in a school than blacks and "pardos" .Although 5% of Brazilian children between the ages of seven and fourteen are enrolled in school, there is still a 1% illiteracy rate among Brazilians.This shows that whites in Brazil have a distinct advantage in education and chances for education than blacks and "pardos" in Brazil.

While racial and social classes determine where a person in Brazil might live, their have been some changes in Brazil, in an attempt to make living conditions for the 67% of the population in the lower class a little bit better.In recent years, their have been some tries at land reform, that is, taking large quantities of unused or dormant land from the owners and making it available to the poor at premium prices.One of the most successful attempts at land reform has been in Curitiba, a city of 1.4 million people located in southern Brazil.They implemented a plan for the city to build housing plots for the people of the lower classes and slums.After this, the city sold the plots to the poor at very low mortgage rates, and let the people build the rest of their house in any way they could.The city would add sewage and electricity, and the homeowner was responsible for the rest.This worked very well because the people were able to use the electricity and sewage to their own advantage and begin to build their house on their own terms.Another land reform plan that was not as successful was the land reform project in Sao Paolo.In this reform, the people of the poor areas were moved into a barracks, while the state rebuilds their homes in the same location and sells them at low interest mortgage rates.This was not as successful because the poor did not have the money to pay for even these simple homes, even at the low rate.

This need for land reform has been brought on Brazil because of the mass migration to the larger cities of Brazil that has been occurring since 160.Since that time, the urban population in Brazil has increased from 44.7 million to 78.4 million in 11 .For example, the population of Sao Paulo, Brazil and Latin America's largest city has increased from only .8 million in 160 to over 16 million today.The same is true for Rio de Janeiro, where the population in 160 was .4 million.Today the city has over 10 million .While these two cities are among the extreme cases of urban migration, in total, 0 million people in Brazil have moved from rural areas to urban areas since 170 .These people have moved to the city to try and gain a better life for themselves and their children, knowing that they might not be able to find jobs or a place to live.One positive thing about the urbanization movement is that the education that urban dwellers receive is somewhat better than those in the rural areas can get.In 11, 86% of Brazilians living in urban areas were literate, but only 60% of those in rural areas could read and write , giving yet another reason for Brazilians to move from rural areas to urban areas.

At the same time, these mass movements into the urban areas are the source of the overpopulation in Brazilian and Latin American cities.As more and more people move into these cities, there becomes less and less space to put them.Enter the slums.Most of these areas have houses that are so small, they look like jail cells.They are built extremely close to each other, and in a lot of cases, they were built on land that did not belong to the builders.Another problem that has developed because of this mass migration is that of finding jobs for all of the people that are constantly moving into the cities.Without the jobs to support all of the people that are moving into their cities, the Brazilian economy has seen it's per capita income suffer.The average income per month in Brazil is only $17 .This includes all classes, and all income earners, whether minimum wage level or the highest income earners in the country.This further shows that the distribution of income is not even.When over 0% of Brazilians earn less than the national average per month, a great inequality in income distribution is obvious.

These social and racial challenges that face Brazil have taken their toll on the Brazilian social classes.The perception of one's color in Brazil does not necessarily tell what skin color a person has, or even what racial background a person might have.There is mass inequality in income distribution, in schooling and chances for an education, and in life expectancy among those of different colors and different social classes.Brazil certainly has many problems ahead of them, but the important thing is how they deal with these problems in the future.

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Please note that this sample paper on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on Racial and Social Challenges in Brazil will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The U-2 Spy Plane

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Many Americans regard the Cold War as a time when tensions ran high and war seemed inevitable; when the entire world was torn between two superpowers. What the common citizen did not know, however, was just how real the war was. There was a secret war being fought between America and the Soviet Union at the time and this took the form of arms buildup, the Space Race, and most notably, espionage. One important aspect of the constant spy game between the two countries was the introduction of the American's U- high altitude spy plane. This innovation gave the Americans a distinct advantage over the Communist Russians, but the project was kept secret from the American people. In fact, the American public only became aware of the existence of the U- after one had been shot down during a secret espionage mission over the Soviet Union.The crises stirred up a great amount of controversy and some of the American people and all of Russian Ambassadors felt that it was an unjustifiable intrusion into the Soviet Union's territory. However, because of the technological advances made and the important information discovered as a result of the U-'s missions, its use was justifiable in the cold war and it was, in fact, a very important tool for the American government, despite its controversy.

"The U- was, indeed one of the CIA's greatest intelligence achievements. In fact, it may be one of the greatest achievements of any intelligence service of any nation." ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). This quote, spoken by George Tenet, former director of the CIA, summarizes what the U- accomplished. However, this only came about through months of hard work and research. President Dwight Eisenhower approved the U- project in 154. The project was proposed as a means of gaining information on

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the growing Soviet threat ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). As a budget, the U- project was granted $5 million to build 0 planes (resulting to just over $1 million per plane) (Sullivan ). The concept of a high altitude spy plane was first introduced at the end of WWII and was finally given a means with which to become reality (Sullivan 1). So, in December of 154, the direction of the project was granted to Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and work on the plane began at the Lockheed "Skunk Works" (Sullivan 1). In order to keep its construction secret from the American public and from possible Soviet spies, the U- was designed under the guise of being a utility plane, hence the 'U' prefix ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" 1). Custom Essays on The U-2 Spy Plane

The U- spy plane would be the most expensive project undertaken by the CIA at that time. A large part of the expense was the fact that the U- would use only the latest photographical and surveillance technology and equipment. Not only that, but it also included the latest fuel and engine advances as well ("A Rev. in Intelligence" 1). The camera that was used by the spy plane to take pictures from 70,000 feet in the air was designed by Edward Land and cost an estimated $57,000 to develop alone (Sullivan, 1). Because the spy plane was expected to complete the flight over the Soviet Union with no stops or refueling times (a total range of about 6,50 miles, it would need to be both super light, and extremely fuel efficient ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" ). Not only that, but the plane was planned and designed to fly at an unprecedented 70,000 feet in order to stay out of reach of the Soviets' anti air guns and planes (Pocock 4). In order to meet the extremely lightweight requirements that would be necessary to obtain such a high altitude and distance many staples of an airplane were not included in the design of the U-.

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Among the list of things that the U- did not come equipped with was an ejector seat for the pilot (Kent 56). It is thought by some circles that there was a dual-reason behind the choice to not have a means of ejection for the pilot. Yes it would conserve weight on the aircraft and, in turn, fuel, but it has been suggested that the American government had an ulterior motive in this matter. If there were no ejector seats, then there would be no surviving pilot if the U- were to crash. It was feared that if a live U- pilot was captured by the Russians then he would be tortured without mercy and forced to give up technological secrets of the United States (Pedlow ). American officials and President Eisenhower didn't want to take this risk so the ejector seat was not included in the plane. The developers of the plane also promised that no pilot of a U- spy plane would be captured (Pedlow 6).

In other efforts to save weight on the plane, it was constructed with extremely long, lightweight wings. They were also very fragile and would crumple like paper under any substantial impact. The tail was held on by only three steel bolts, making it vulnerable to breakage as well (Pocock 47). With the "long, high aspect ratio wings", the U- was given some of the traits of a glider to give it a longer range and carry as meager of an amount of fuel as possible ("Lockheed U- and TR-1" 4). With an extremely lightweight body and no counter-measures, the U- relied solely upon its capability to fly above other planes, specifically Russian MiGs, to keep it safe ("A Rev. in Intelligence" ). After plans were complete the first U- took 88 days to build and made its first flight in August of 155 (Sullivan 1).

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After development of the spy plane was completed, all that was left for the American government was actually using it, and the U- became an effective tool for America such that it was indeed justifiable in its covert operation. The U-'s mission statement was to analyze the extent of the Soviet Union ballistic missile threat. In short, photograph any Soviet arms factories and also any completed missiles that were present on the ground ("A Rev. in Intelligence" ). To this effect, the U- missions began on July 4, 156, launching from Wiesbaden Air Base in Western Germany (Orlov ). The first flight was a success. It passed over the entire landmass of the Soviet Union taking substantial amounts of pictures of the Russian's weapons factories and actual military strength (Orlov ). However, something happened that the Americans did not expect. The U- was detected by Russian radar. It was thought that the plane flew so high and was so small that it would be overlooked by the Russian military. However, the Soviet Union did in fact know, that they were being spied on and protested vehemently against the intrusion of their airspace (Kent 18). That is all they could do though, since they had no available counter-measures that could shoot down planes that flew so high. They were left to protest through diplomatic channels to the American government, who was not about to relinquish their new powerful tool of surveillance. During the ten days after July 4, 156, the U-'s made five incursions into USSR airspace and obtained hundreds of photographs of Russian airfields and shipyards. The pictures came as a relief to American officials as it was revealed that the amount of strategic bombers and actual ballistic missiles the Soviets controlled was far less then the estimated number and also far less then the amount the Americans controlled. While this eased the fears of the American

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government, it did nothing to quell the worries of the American public, who were unaware of the surveillance flights into the Soviet Union (Orlov ).

Though the amount of strategic airplanes and ballistic missiles was less then the anticipated amount, the number of nuclear submarines was much larger. It appeared that the Russian military had been concentrating its money in submarine research and construction, perhaps for use against the continental United States (Pocock 5).

The U- flights were a great success and their pictures provided a useful tool for the American government. Though the American public never knew about them, they did a great deal to ensure American safety and allowed officials to make informed decisions concerning the Soviets. Instead of rushing to war on "assumptions" that the Soviets had a larger military, the Americans could instead, allow themselves a measure of relaxation, for they were in fact, not in as significant a danger as they had originally perceived. The U- flights guaranteed the safety of the American people and for that reason they were justified for use in the Cold War. The flights may have violated Russian airspace but it was all in an effort to become informed of their enemies capabilities and be able to better protect the peace and freedom that Americans lived under.

While the Soviets could not militarily respond to the U- planes' intrusion of their airspace, that did not stop them from establishing a new branch of the military in early 160. Called the Strategic Missile Forces, its specific mission was to develop a new generation of anti aircraft weaponry particularly with the idea of countering the U- (Orlov 5). Soviets began deploying an increasing amount of strategic missiles, building new SAM (surface-to-air missiles) sites, and equipping their forces with advanced radar,

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all in an effort to combat the U- intrusions (Orlov 4). However, for many years these efforts proved to be only a mild deterrent to scheduled U- flyovers. Diplomacy remained the Soviets only option. Their negotiations and protests gained a brief pause in the flights in 156, but they resumed again in 157 (Orlov 5).

In response to the Americans' domination of the sky, the Soviets turned to their space program. They made fantastic breakthroughs in the fields of rocketry and space travel, hoping to use this advantage as a lever to help put a stop to U- flyovers. In fact, it was believed by the Americans that the Soviets' ultimate goal was to put a nuclear device into space capable of attacking the United States with them being unable to counter it (Orlov 4).

Despite the edge that the Americans had held over the Soviets for so long concerning the U- missions, that gap began to lessen with time. Soviets eventually developed an anti-air missile that was capable of tracking aircraft in high altitudes (Orlov 6). This upgrading of Soviet weaponry made U- flights increasingly risky. There were reports from pilots of missiles fired from the ground coming much closer to the planes then previously had been thought possible (Orlov 7). There were even reports of a spy in the U- program who was handing over the secrets of the aircraft to the Russians. It seemed that the communist nation may soon develop their own version of the U- spy plane, possibly one with offensive weapons to counter the Americans' (Kent ).

The tensions between America and the Soviet Union continued to grow until finally it was decided that a summit must be held to avoid war. The leaders of the countries prepared to meet in Paris to discuss a possible cut down on the stockpile of

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armaments in both countries (Pocock ). Because of the sensitivity of this summit and the fact that the frail negotiations to hold it could collapse at any time, the U- flights were suspended. The last one was scheduled to fly on May 1st by a veteran pilot, Francis Gary Powers (Sullivan ).

Powers flight was immediately detected upon entrance to Soviet airspace. Unbeknownst to him was the fact that the Soviets had been sucessfully testing a new type of SAM missile that was capable of homing in on aircraft at high altitudes (Orlov 5). A group of MiG's shadowed Power's entire flight in Soviet airspace and radioed his position to Russian military command (Sullivan ). Powers was shot down by an anti-aircraft missle over Sverdlosk. He crashlanded and survived unscathed (Sullivan ). Not only was Powers unable to activate the self-destruct charges that would destroy his aircraft to prevent the technology from falling into Soviet hands but he also did not ingest his cyanide pill to commit suicide (Sullivan 4). As expected, Powers was captured by the KGB and held in Moscow where it was "uncertain" what information the Russians extracted from him; the American government assumed that Powers had been killed on impact and fed a cover story to the American public of an "accidental crash" in northern Russia (Pocock 67). The peace summit was to continue as planned. However, during the peace talks themselves, the Soviet Union expressed their anger at having their airspace violated by U- spy planes. The American government denied this claim and it was then that the Russians brought Powers into the summit, alive and well. This, of course, was a humiliating experience for America and the peace talks collapsed (Pocock 71). Not only

Fagan 8

that, but President Eisenhower lost creditability with the American people because of the fact that he had denied the U- project existed and he was now shown to be lying.

Despite the dire ramifications that the Powers episode had on the peace talks between the USSR and America, it cannot be refuted that without the U- spy plane a war could have easily occurred because America did not know of Russia's weapon capability. The U- was an important tool in this aspect because it allowed the Americans to acquire photographical evidence of Russia's weapon sites. Despite the controversey that arose from the use of the spy plane, it was in fact justifiable in its use in order to protect America from getting involved in a costly feud with the Soviet Union during the Cold War Era.

Works Cited

"A Revolution in Intelligence." CIA Press Releases and Statements. 8 Sept. 18. http

//www.odci.gov/cia/public_affairs/press_releases/archives/18/pro088.html

(17 Nov. 00).

Halberstam, David. The Fifties Fawcett Columbine, 1.

Kent, Sherman. "The Cuban Missile Crisis of 16Presenting the Photographic Evidence

Abroad." Center for the Study of Intelligence. http//www.odci.gov/csi/books/

Shermankent/10cuban.html (17 Nov. 00).

Kent, Sherman. "The Summit Conference of 160An Intelligence Officer's View."

Center for the Study of Intelligence. http//www.odci.gov/csi/books/shermankent

/8summit.html (17 Nov. 00).

Orlov, Alexander. "The U- ProgramA Russian Officer Remembers". A "Hot Front in

The Cold War. http//www.cia.gov/csi/studies/winter8-/art0.html (Nov. 18, 00).

Pedlow, George W., and Donald E. Welzenbach. The CIA and the U- Program. History

Staff Center for the Study of Intelligence, 184.

Pocock, Chris. Dragon Lady The History of the U- Spy Plane. New York Motorbooks

International, 18.

Powers, Francis Gary. Operation OverflightA Memoir of the U- Incident. New York

Brasseys, Inc., 170.

United States. Dept. of State. Office of the Historian. "The U- Airplane Incident".

Washington 160. http//www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc_u/fraus_x1_147.htm (17 Nov. 00).

Sanders, William. The "Skunk" Project. New YorkHolst Inc, 174.

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John donne

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John Donne uses poetry to explore his own identity, express his feelings, and most of all, he uses it to deal with the personal experiences occurring in his life. Donnes poetry is a confrontation or struggle to find a place in this world, or rather, a role to play in a society from which he often finds himself detached or withdrawn. This essay will discuss Donnes states of mind, his views on love, women, religion, his relationship with God; and finally how the use of poetic form plays a part in his exploration for an identity and salvation.

The speaker in Donnes poetry is a theatrical character, constantly in different situations, and using different roles to suit the action. He can take on the role of the womanizer, as in The Indifferent, or the faithful lover from Lovers Infiniteness, but the speaker in each of these poems is always John Donne himself. Each poem contains a strong sense of Donnes own self-interest. According to Professor J. Crofts, Donne

Throughout his life... was a man self-haunted, unable to escape from his own drama, unable to find any window that would not give him back the image of himself. Even the mistress of his most passionate love-verses, who must (one supposes) have been a real person, remains for him a mere abstraction of sex a thing given. He does not see her --does not apparently want to see her; for it is not of her that he writes, but of his relation to her; not of love, but of himself loving.

In Elegy XIX [To His Mistress Going to Bed], we are confronted with one of Donnes personalities. The poem begins abruptly Come, Madam, come! All rest my powers defy;/ Until I labour, I in l abour lie. The reader is immediately thrust into the middle of a private scene in which Donne attempts to convince his lover to undress and come to bed. There is only one speaker in this poem, Donne, we do not hear the voice or a description of the feelings of another person, but she is always present. If Samuel Johnson was correct when he made the statement that the metaphysical poets were men of learning, and to show their learning was their whole endeavour..., then the woman Donne is trying to convince is simply there so he can create this poem. Donne uses wit as his poetic device, wit being defined as an elaborate parallel between two dissimilar images or situations, namely the conceit. Donne does not give the woman a voice, and he most likely does not see her as human but as a means to create a role for himself. He describes her body and her undressing in metaphors

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Off with that girdle, like Heavens zone glittering,

But far fairer would encompassing.

Unpin that spangled breastplate which you wear,

That th eyes of busy fools may be stopped there.

Unlace yourself, for that harmonious chime

Tells me from you that it is now bedtime.

Off with that happy busk, which I envy,

That still can be, and still can stand so nigh.

Your gown going off, such beauteous state reveals

As when from flowry meads th hills shadows steals.

Off with that wiry coronet, and show

The hairy diadem which on you doth grow. [lines -16]

With these lines Donne is the poet first, using different poetic strategies to convince his lover, then he is a triumphant explorer

O my America, my new found land!

My kingdom, safeliest when one man manned,

My mine of precious stones, my empery,

How blest I am in this discovering thee! [lines 7-0]

Finally Donne is naked and vulnerable, involved in a battle of the sexes, struggling to get the woman undressed. Donne cannot control how quickly she undresses, or whether she will undress at all. He deals with this problem through his use of wit. Elegy XIX is an exercise for Donne, he explores various types of metaphors, and plays with the Petrarchan conceit, a popular poetic genre of his day. The main role Donne explores in Elegy XIX is that of the poet, and he enjoys this process because no matter what the outcome, Donne is still happy with the situation because he can write a poem describing various ways in which he can convince his lover to do what he wants.

Donnes personality changed with every new experience. His poetry reflects these changing roles by taking on a different form each time. Perhaps Elegy XIX can be seen as a time in Donnes life when he wanted to establish himself as a poet in his own mind, but there certainly was a significant event in Donnes life that changed his attitude toward women and himself. Elegy XIX shows us a person who thinks only of his own gratification, the woman is there so he can invent. In The Good Morrow Donne shows another side of himself, a man in love and finding his own identity inside another person, along with a new and fully developed style. There is still that egocentric attitude and the use of extended metaphors, but also an element of rebirth.

I wonder, by my troth, what thou and I

Did till we loved? were we not weaned till then,

But sucked on country pleasures, childishly?

Or snorted we in seven sleepers den?

Twas so; but this, all pleasures fancies be.

If ever any beauty I did see,

Which I desired, and got, twas but a dream of thee.

And now good-morrow to our waking souls,

Which watch not one another out of fear;

For love all love of other sights controls,

And makes one little room an everywhere. [lines 1-11]

These lines suggest that his past attitudes, past mistresses were somehow outside himself, or merely dreams of the woman he is now in love with. The lovers are separate worlds, they maintain their own identities, but at the same time they are mixed together forming a unit.

Let us posses one world; each hath one, and is one.

My face in thine, thine in mine appears,

And true plain hearts do in fact rest;

Where can we find two better hemispheres

Without sharp north, without declining west?

Whatever dies was not mixed equally;

If our two loves be one, or thou and I

Love so alike that none do slacken, none can die. [lines 14-1]

The lovers are cut off from the outside, they live in their own world. Donne sees himself in the reflection of his lovers eyes, obtaining an identity through her. He ceased to exist before he woke up in love with this woman.

Time disapproves of their love and Donne later finds his unit disturbed by the outside world. In The Sun Rising, the sun intrudes and reminds him that it is not just he and his lover that exist

Busy old fool, unruly sun,

Why dost thou thus

Through windows and through curtains call on us?

Must to thy motions lovers seasons run?

Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide

Late school boys and sour prentices,

Go tell court-huntsmen that the king will ride,

Call country ants to harvest offices;

Love, all alike, no season knows, nor clime,

Nor hours, days, months, which are rags of time. [lines 1-10]

This poem can be seen as a sort of dramatic monologue, a complaint to the sun. The sun reminds Donne of the outside world, one that he is aware of, but wants no part in. He would rather exist outside of time, alone with his love inside the unit they form. The couples hands are firmly cemented, their eye beams twisted together to become one, as in The Ecstasy. In The Sun Rising Donne contrasts his relationship to the sun, the sun is aged and has worldly things to do, while Donne and his lover appear timeless, immortal, able to disregard the sun with a wink of an eye. Eventually the couple contain the sun and the world. The poet no longer contrasts his unit with the sun, because the lovers become the world

She is all states, and all princes I;

Nothing else is.

Princes do but play us; compared to this,

All honours mimic, all wealth alchemy.

Thou, sun, art half as happy as we,

In that the worlds contracted thus;

Thine age asks ease, and since thy duties be

To warm the world, thats done in warming us.

Shine here to us, and thou art everywhere;

This bed thy centre is, these walls thy sphere. [lines 1-0]

Perhaps the most dramatic of Donnes poems is The Canonization. This poem expresses Donnes anger at the criticism of others and their opinions about how he chooses to live his life. The poem begins as a plea to be left alone, a demand for the people bothering him to mind their own business

For Gods sake hold your tongue, and let me love;

Or chide my palsy, or my gout,

My five grey hairs, or ruined fortune flout;

With wealth your state, your mind with arts improve,

Take you a course, get you a place,

Observe his Honour, or his Grace,

Or the kings real, or his stamped face

Contemplate; what you will, approve,

So you will let me love. [lines 1-]

Donne is defending his choices, he chooses to remain set off from the outside world, alone in a relationship that hurts no one save for their lack of understanding The phoenix riddle hath more wit/ By us; we two being one, are it. This poem was written most likely after his elopement with Ann More and the stress and disapprovement that went with his marriage. The beginning of the poem brings the reader into a debate between Donne and his friend, and then he turns inward and examines his love, the opponent is lost, and we get Donnes feelings on the matter of love

We can die by it, if not live by love,

And if unfit for tombs and hearse

Our legend be, it will be fit for verse;

And if no piece of chronicle we prove,

Well build in sonnets pretty rooms;

As well a well-wrought urn becomes

The greatest ashes, as half-acre tombs,

And by these hymns all shall approve

Us canonized for love... [lines 8-6]

Their love will become a legend inscribed on their tomb stones, immortalized in verse, building shelter through the poets words. He turns his love into the written Word, a law to live by, while others take to their courtly duties.

John Donnes Holy Sonnets reveal his relationship with God, his thoughts on religion, and his hope for salvation. Leaving the Catholic Church left Donne alone, worried about his after-life, almost helpless. For a while Donne survived with his various lovers and later his wife, but perhaps these sonnets bring us to the time after Ann Mores death, when Donne did not have the identity he found in the eyes of his lovers. Donne found himself alone with God and his religious beliefs. Writing poetry has always been a private experience for Donne. His dramatic self-presentation remains in his writings. Professor Crofts asserts

And so, later in life, though the stuff of his meditations changes, this inability to lose himself remains. It is not of God that he thinks so often or so deeply as of his relation to God; of the torturing drama of his sin and its expiation, the sowing and the reaping, the wheat and the tares. The great commonplace of his sermons, it has been said, is death but in truth it is not death that inspires his frightful eloquence so much as the image of himself dying; and the pre-occupation culminates in that ghastly charade of his last hours, described by Walton, when he lay contemplating the portrait of himself in his winding-sheet like a grim and mortified Narcissus.

Again, the reader is thrust into the action of the poem in Sonnet 14. Donne calls on God in a frenzied demanding tone Batter my heart, three-personed God; for You/ As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend..., in a sense Donne wants God to beat sin out of him because he feels tempted by it. Donne does not feel part of a unit at this moment and calls on God to imprison him because he feels so distant and helpless.

The poet fears his own mortality and believes he is running towards death, that death is meeting him half-way. Many of the Divine Poems describe Donnes sickness and loneliness. He asks God to act, to repair his illness and prevent aging. In Holy Sonnet 1 Donne appears to be helpless

Thou hast made me, and shall Thy work decay?

Repair me now, for now mine end doth haste;

I run to death, and death meets me as fast... [lines 1-]

He begs God to be a magnet for his hardened heart, to tear him away from sin. In SonnetDonne wants God to fight for him. Poetry now becomes the model for his own salvation. Donne, in a sense, is an active participant by calling on God to save him. In Sonnet 5, the poet sees himself as a little world, his body similar to the entire world, his eyes swelled with tears like the sea. These images parallel his first Meditation

Is this the honour which man hath by being a little world that he hath these earth quakes in himself, sudden shakings; these lightnings, sudden flashes; these thunders, sudden noises; these eclipses, sudden offuscations and darkening of his senses; these blazing stars, sudden fiery exhalations; these rivers of blood, sudden red waters?

Donne refers to biblical stories of the Old Testament flood and the New Testament Apocalypse as he calls for God to drown and burn his sin contained within himself as a microcosm. In his sickness, he believes the biblical experience is being fulfilled in him, as was the Old Testament in the New. The Meditations and the Holy Sonnets have some differences. In the Meditations, Donne seems alone in his sickness, scorning the weakness of man; but in the Divine poems he seems to embrace sickness and death believing that this is how God is saving him from sin.

The Hymn to God, My God, In My Sickness was intended to be Donnes death-bed poem, the final acceptance of his sickness that he believes was in preparation for his salvation

Since I am coming to that holy room

Where, with thy choir of saints for evermore

I shall be made Thy Music, as I come

I tune the instrument here at the door,

And what I must do then, think here before. [lines 1-5]

The Hymn is a kind of personal release. The feeling of helplessness in his former poems are abandoned, and Donne seems confident that his bodily illnesses tuned his soul so it can enter heaven. This tuning of instruments refers to the writing of the Hymn itself, and the instrument, an image for Donnes soul, will become the music in Heaven.

John Donne takes a journey through his life and uses poetry in order to find his own identity. The poems take the reader through dramatic situations, confrontations, and debates between the poet and a person whose voice is not heard. In the poems Donne is acting out different personas-- characters like the womanizer, the monogamist lover, a man sick and dying calling on God to save his soul, and finally a man accepting his death to the point of obsession. This is a journey through the poets vulnerability, his pleas for sex, isolation, and finally salvation. Donnes writing reveals his attitudes about sex and religion, experiences he believes should be private and cut off from the outside and reality. By using elaborate conceits, Donne is not only trying to be witty and show his great learning as Samuel Johnson might suspect. The paradoxes and strange comparisons are written as an attempt to understand what is happening to him. The poetry portrays a man obsessed with himself, and obsessed with finding a place or a person so he can exist.

Please note that this sample paper on john donne is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on john donne, we are here to assist you.Your cheap research papers on john donne will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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