Overcoming Resistance To Change In Organisations

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ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR-OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE IN ORGANISATIONS

DEFINITION

To succeed in dealing with or controlling the act of using force to oppose the act of making something different in an organisation.

INTRODUCTION Write your Overcoming Resistance To Change In Organisations research paper

Most people are, in the full of excitement and without rest world that we currently live in, subject to some form of change affecting their lives.Whether it be a change in policies, frequent restructuring of the health system, the appointment of new ministers, or even a new pet dog, they are all forms of change that mankind has to deal with.Some persons deal very well with change and thus adapt quickly to any new situation.Others that fear of unknown or fear that they do not have the skills they will need if changes are implemented, do not find this easy at all, and therefore resist any changing situation that might occur.The object of this assignment is to help identify the reasons for resistance to change, how to overcome the resistance.Once one understands more about change, the easier it is to adapt.

Reasons for resistance to change

1) Uncertainty about the causes and effects of change

People may worry that their work and lives may be affected, and feel threatened and manipulated, or losing some of their power.They may take action to prevent the change happening.

) Unwillingness to give up existing benefits or self-interest

Although the change may benefit the organization as a whole, some individuals may lose power, status or benefits in some way.The amount of resistance generated will depend on the amount that the group or the individual feel will affect self-interest.

) Awareness of weaknesses in the changes proposed

People may resist change if they are aware of potential problems that may have been overlooked by the change initiators.

4) Lack of trust and understanding

If one does not understand the change or reason thereof, how can one accepted it. Lack of trust between employees and managers will also create a barrier to the change.

5) Low tolerance for change

Some individuals have greater intolerance to adapt to new situations.Some are likely to resist change just because it is change, regardless of their personal situation.Individuals who are tolerant to change but are continuously subjected to it, may reached the limit of their tolerance.

6) Peer pressure

Normally occurs within groups.If the group is highly cohesive, even reasonable changes will be met by resistance.For example Unions.

7) Different assessments

People have different perceptions.A good idea for one might be a bad idea for another.Different people in different jobs will have different perceptions of a situation.

8) Conservatism

Organisation or people may simply be opposed to change.This can result from a feeling that everything is OK, from loss of touch with customers, from lack of exposure to better way of doing things, or from slowness of decision making, etc…

) Organisational resistance

Resistance to change is usually by individuals, but the nature of the organisation can also cause resistance.Organisation with a tall rigid hierarchical structure with well-defined specification of rolls will find it harder to accommodate change than a more flexible structure.

10) Complexity can also be a problem-Complex changes are more difficult to implement.

According to Peter Drucker in his 1 book "Management Challenges" for the 1st century, "Everybody has accepted by now that change is unavoidable……in a period of upheaval, such as the one we are living in, change is the norm." he writes ( Peter Drucker.1).Organisations that survive in a period of rapid structure change are the change leaders/strong organisations.An organisation may need various strategies and approaches to overcome resistance to change.Change creates uncertainty.There are two types of change, revolutionary and evolutionary.Revolutionary change takes much less time than evolutionary, but it does not give the organisation and its individuals time to learn and respond to the new changes.However, evolutionary change may allow the organisation and its employees enough time to accept that their future role within would have to change.Change is a painful experience for many.To make change work effectively, the CEOs and managers must to be sensitive to the impact of change on people.There are a few methods of overcoming resistance to change

1)Education and communication

The leaders develop and communicate a clear image of the future state can help individuals, groups and even entire organisations to accept the change.It is almost impossible to manage the condition to another if people have no idea where changes are headed.The fact is that many organisations go into the process of change with some basic things that they hope to achieve and cherish value to guide them on their journey.It allows leaders to be flexible creative and open-minded in deciding a future path; but for the individuals it can be frightening.So it is important to explain the future state as fully as you can.

Successful leaders have to spend a big amount of time to meet people one-on-one or in small sessions.They can even use video taped massages to pass on to individuals or groups.To communicate directly to the change leaderfor example Scott MacNealy at Sun Microsystems says he gets more than two hundred internal electronic massages a day during the implementation of change .He knows the employees' think.He puts information on company's websites and employees can gather news on the company Internet.This method will get people to help implementing the change once they are persuaded.However, it can be very time consuming if many people are involved.

Having an intensive " discovery" session, with an environment of open communication, creativity and freedom from distractions, will enable a clear outline of where the organisationis now, what are its objectives, and where are the gaps.This initial session will then help to make a better understanding position for both parties.

)Participation and involvement

By getting more people involve in the planning stage, the more successful the change will be.As people participate they develop a sense of ownership.For example, The Avionics Group was facing decentralization problems, uncoordinated processes and few common measures.Therefore, the group feels the need to deliver its One Company vision by focusing on technology, people and processes by consulting KPMG Consulting.The firm worked with Avionics employees, with more responsibility devolving to the employees over time .They feel responsible to get the things work rather than to oppose it.Furthermore, participants may have some good idea to contribute.They may build understanding and are much more likely to truly hear important message.Especially, if the leaders can get the potential resistor to help in implementing the change, they will have a sense of accomplishment from making it work.As people who participate will commit to the change and give any relevant information they know putting into the change plan.However, it can also be very time consuming if participants design an irrelevance change.And the change leaders have to figure out which information is relevant to the change.

)The creation of a positive environment

To get to a more desirable work situation, the change leaders have to know the importance of the environment.By allowing the employees having enough times to adjust to new procedures, therefore they will understand the importance of the change and how they will benefit from it, will usually be more co-operative in accepting change.The change leaders have to encourage the individuals or groups to try new ideas or be innovative.Obviously, mistakes will be made by going through new ideas, therefore the change leaders should give tolerance to the individuals or groups. Atmospheres in which employees feel safe expressing their negative emotional responses openly.

4)Facilitation and support

The change leaders can show supportive to deal with resistance to change by providing training in new skills or simply listening to the individuals or groups and giving emotional support.As paragraph from www.thesoularium.com/Learning/ml.html When they identified high levels of anger and distrust as significant barriers to communication and collaboration, they provided Emotional Intelligence training and facilitation for everyone on the team, in 0 minute individual sessions.The employees' old skills will be obsolete if no training and education are provided.By implementing programs to retrain the employees for new jobs and help them to develop new skills, they will move likely to support the changes when fear and anxiety lie at the heart have been removed .In addition, by making the changes non-threatening and consistent with the employees' self-image, the possibilities to overcome resistance are increased .People will face adjustment problems upon changes implement.Therefore, building support among individuals and groups is important.However, it can still be very time consuming, expensive and yet still fail.

5)Creation of credibility

By implementing change, it is wise to use a little persuasion to get people change their beliefs. Using credible spokespersons and letting the new message spreads on a positive and logical appeals through multiple channels.However, any negative features of the change need to be highlighted to the public too .By giving several successful experiences through trial bases, people will be more to accept the change; and their resistance level will be reduced as well.

6)Reward acceptance and be fair

Robert Evans said "If you consistently deny people confirmation that their efforts are adequate, you are actually demotivate them" .So it is important to reward behavior in support of change.Because people may show resistance to change if they are not satisfied in the way they are treated.People are more likely to accept the change if they receive positive rewards in the form of pay, promotion, recognition and advancement.Furthermore, it is important for the change leaders to develop a good reputation of fairness in order to gain the individuals or groups' trust.By doing this, it will help the change leaders become effective in implementing and managing change.Normally, people feel uncertain during the periods of change because they are told to start doing their job differently, yet the reward system lags behind and sometimes, the new objectives were being under-minded by the old reward system.Therefore, the change leaders have to be fair to gain people's confidence.

7)Negotiation and agreement

By having discussion with the staffs, the change leaders are able to discover the potential resister.They are the person or group with considerable power to resist and win clearly spoil the whole process of change.Therefore, the change leaders should have to take initiative to negotiate with them and even soliciting written letters of understanding.Once people were convincing, the level of resistance will be reduced.This will help to smooth the process of change.However, this can be very expensive if it alerts others to negotiate for compliance.

8)Timing

The importance of picking the right time to engage "overcoming" strategies as well as dealing with each person individually, and not only as part of a group.People need information most whenever they are likely to be surprised by events.Therefore, right timing is crucial as well as keeping surprise to a minimum.Due to many factors required, to ensure the organization is ready for a change, the change leaders need to be aware of the importance of considering their readiness when embarking on a change initiative.The change leaders should, for instance, make the effort to change elements of the company, which are not satisfying, before they become a problem.They should also consider in what ways the organization could be modified, in order to prevent a reoccurrence of problems that have been thrown up during the change.

)Manipulation and co-optation

To effectively achieve change, to assign the key persons a desirable role in designing or implementing the change process is important.Rather than perceiving change as something that someone is doing to them, they see it as something they have a hand in creating.As people participate, they develop a sense of ownership.If someone is imposing the change upon them, they derive a sense of messing it up.In contrast, they get a sense of accomplishment from making it work.This method is relatively quick and inexpensive solution to resist problems.However, it can lead to future problems if people feel manipulated.

10)Create dissatisfaction with the current state

In order to get to a desired future state, we have to create dissatisfaction with the current state.Most people tend to assume their performance is pretty good until they are hit with comparable numbers form elsewherethe cycle time for new product, consumer satisfaction percentage, total sales per employee, comparison with their competitors and finally realize that it is time for them to change.This will lead the people to take their initiative to implement the change.However, if the change leaders over-emphasize the disaster scenario, people can panic and may ruin the whole process.

11)Explicit and implicit coercion

Having job loss threatening, transfer or lack of promotion can also help to overcome resistance to change.Especially during bad economic situation, people tend to stay on the job instead of going for a new one.Therefore, the employees will have to accept the change at low level of resistance.This is an effective method in term of speed and can almost overcome any kind of resistance.However, it can be very risky if people are angry feeling threatened with the change leaders.

1)Collect and analyze feedback

The routine collection of data and feedback through courses given, surveys, focus groups and formal interviews can help the change leaders to develop an array of sensing devices that constantly take the temperature of the organization and help them figure out what is working and what is not working.When Citibank launched its ATM offensive in New York, rival Chemical Bank retaliated with a major overhaul of its own.Robert Lipp, then the head of Chemical Bank's Consumer Banking, made it a point each morning to stop on his way to work at one of Chemical Bank's Branches and do a piece of personal business.It was his way of getting his own read on what was actually happening out in the field .

CONCLUSION

Organisations do need to change in order to adjust to the changing internal and external environment.This means that the attitudes of the organisation members and the organisation itself have to change along with the structural changes and this does involve expertise from the behavioral sciences.Organisations that overcome resistance to change successfully will stand an opportunity to compete in the future.Therefore, it is essential for companies to take actions to overcome the above mentioned problem.

Please note that this sample paper on Overcoming Resistance To Change In Organisations is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Overcoming Resistance To Change In Organisations, we are here to assist you.Yourpersuasive essay on Overcoming Resistance To Change In Organisations will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The Journey of Odysseus

If you order your essay from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on The Journey of Odysseus. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality The Journey of Odysseus paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in The Journey of Odysseus, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your The Journey of Odysseus paper at affordable prices with custom writing service!The Journey of Odysseus

and Telemachos

In The Odyssey written by Homer and translated by Robert Fitzgerald,

several themes are made evident, conceived by the nature of the time

Order College Papers on The Journey of Odysseus

period, and customs of the Greek people. These molded and shaped the

actual flow of events and outcomes of the poem. Beliefs of this

characteristic were represented by the sheer reverence towards the gods

and the humanities the Greek society exhibited, and are both deeply

rooted within the story.

In the intricate and well-developed plot of The Odyssey, Homer

harmonized several subjects. One of these, was the quest of Telemachos,

in correlation with the journey of his father. Inthis,

he is developed from a childish, passive, and untested boy, to a

young man preparing to stand by his fathers side. This is directly

connected to the voyage of Odysseus, in that they both lead to the same

finale, and are both stepping stones towards wisdom, manhood, and

scholarship. Through these voyages certain parallels are drawn concerning

Odysseus and Telemachos the physical journeys, the mental preparations

they have produced, and what their emotional status has resulted in.

These all partake a immense role in the way the story is set up, stemming

from the purpose of each characters journey, their personal challenges,

and the difficulties that surround them.

The story commences when Odysseus, a valiant hero of the Trojan war,

journeys back home. Together with his courageous comrades, and a several

vessels, he set sail for his homeland Ithaca. Fated to wander for a full

ten years, Odysseus's ships were immediately blown to Thrace by a

powerful storm. The expedition had begun.

Upon this misfortune, he and his men started a raid on the land of

the Cicones. However, this only provided them with temporary success. The

Cicones had struck back and defeated a vast majority of Odysseus's crew.

This was their first of many disastrous experiences to come.

Storms then blew his ships to Libya and the land of the

Lotus-eaters, where the crew was given Lotus fruit from which most lost

their entire memories from home. Odysseus, and the others who had not

tasted it, recovered the sailors by force, and set sail again, westward,

this time to the island of the Cyclops, a wild race of one-eyed giants.

Leaving most of his men in a sheltered cove, Odysseus then entered the

island with one crew only. They wandered around, encountering, and

foolishly entering an immense cave, awaiting the owner. Moments later, a

Cyclops named Polyphemos, son of Poseidon, entered and pushed a huge

bolder covering the entrance to the cave. Upon this, he immediately ate

two sailors, and promised to eat the others in due time. The morning

came, and Polyphemos had promptly eaten two more seamen, against the will

of Zeus. Odysseus, soon realized that killing him asleep would do no good

since the mouth of the cave was still inescapable. The captain had then

devised a new plan. When Polyphemos returned that evening, Odysseus

showered the monster with wine until he had fallen under a drunken spell.

Then, with the help of his companions took a sharp pole and rammed it

into his large eye, blinding him instantaneously. As the crew sailed away

into the vast dimensions of the sea, Odysseus had unwisely revealed his

name in taunting the poor beast, boasting his excessive pride. Polyphemos

then made a prayer to his father, asking to punish the man who had caused

him this harm.

Several days later Odysseus and his men arrived at the island of

Aeolus, keeper of the winds. There, they stayed for about one month, and

departed, in sight of the long-awaited Ithaca. However, before they left,

Odysseus was presented with a container of winds, carrying each but the

needed West wind. As Ithaca approached, the crew not knowing the

contents of the skin, opened it up and released all of the winds,

depositing the ships back at the island of Aeolus, who refused to help

them any further.

Setting sail once again, the group headed back west, where they had

come across the Island of the Laesrtygonians, a savage race of cannibals.

Everyone, but Odysseus, lined their ships at the harbor, covered with

rocks. The entire party was attacked and eaten by the Laestrygonians, who

had bombarded them with giant boulders. Having but one vessel left,

Odysseus sailed his ship to the Island of Dawn, inhabited by the

sorceress Circe.

A group of men were sent to explore the island, who were then lured,

feasted, and the turned to swine by Circe. Knowing this Odysseus went

after her, and on his way encountered Hermes who gave him a potion to

withstand the spell. Circe tried, and then she failed. Odysseus had then

requested for his crew to be turned back to normal. She complied, and

eventually housed Odysseus and his shipmates long enough for him to

father three children. Homesick and distraught, Odysseus was then advised

by Circe to search the underworld for Teiresias, to tell him his fortune,

and how to appease Poseidon.

Odysseus agreed and made a trip to the underworld, where he

discovered many of his dead companions from Troy, and most importantly,

Teiresias. With his new knowledge, he returned to Circe, which had

provided him with just the information he needed to pass the Sirens. They

then departed from the island and continued on there journey, ears

filled with wax.

What Odysseus was about to encounter next would be a very difficult

task. He needed to direct his ship through a straight, between two

cliffs, on one side the whirlpool Charybdis, on the other, a monster

Scylla. Trying hard to avoid Charybdis Odysseus came too close to Scylla,

and six members of his ship suffered the consequences. As the journey

continued the Island of Helios stood in path. Helios was the sun-god, and

nurturer of the cattle of the gods. Knowing this, but at the same time

extraordinarily hungry, Odysseus waited for his sea-mates to fall asleep

and slaughtered several of the cattle. This was much considered a lack of

respect not only to Helios, but to the rest of the gods as well.

Zeus, angered by his gesture, struck his ship with thunder,

destroying the entire thing and killing the rest of the crew except for

Odysseus, which floated off to the Island of Ogygia, where he would there

spend the next seven years, made a lover, by the sea nymph Calypso. Upon

Poseidon's departure to Ethiopia, Zeus had then ordered that Calypso

release Odysseus, who gave him an ax. With this, he constructed a float,

and continued his expedition. Back from his trip, Poseidon, saw Odysseus

floating in the ocean and felt compelled to drown him, which he almost

did, if it was not for the goddess Ino, who had spared him a magic veil.

He tied this to his waist, and swam to a beach where he immediately fell

asleep.

The next morning he was awoken by maidens playing ball after doing

the wash. There he saw Nausikaa, daughter of king Alkinoos. Odysseus

gently supplicated to the princess. She first took him to the inhabitants

of the island, the Phaiakians, and then Alkinoos, the king. There he

listened to Odysseus's stories, and presented him with lavish gifts and a

furnished ship back to Ithaca. Resenting this fact, Poseidon turned the

new crew into stone for their generosity.

This is the time, nearly twenty years after his fathers departure,

Athene wisely advises the worried, and still immature Telemachos to go in

search of his father. Telemachos agrees with her orders, and before his

departure he makes it clear to the suitors (robbing his home and

proposing marriage to his mother Penelope) that he wants them all out of

his house.

He then requested a ship and twenty men, and sailed off to the

Island of Pylos. There he was immediately greeted by Nestor, in the

middle of offering eighty-one bulls to Poseidon. Peisistratos, son of Nestor,

then offered some intestines to Telemachos and Athene as far as

sacrificing it in hopes of a safe journey. This was ironic since in

reality, Athene was controlling his journey, and on the other hand,

moments ago, Poseidon, was in fact destroying the journey of his father.

Nestor, once seeing that his guests were finished feasting, asked of

their identities. Once he was recognized, Telemachos asked Nestor about

his father. Nestor rambled on and said nothing of real importance to

Telemachos. At this point Telemachos became pessimistic, and Athene

reassured him with an analogy of Agamemnon's short journey, and it's

consequences. Still emotionally unstable, Telemachos used this

opportunity to speak of Menaleus, Agamemnon's brother.

Nestor agreed that Menaleus may be more knowledgeable that he, and

kindly provided him with a chariot, so that he could travel to Sparta to

speak with him, accompanied by Peisistratos. He arrived at Sparta two

days later, sleeping in the house of Diocles the first night, and

arriving by nightfall the second day. He reached the island just in the

middle of a double marriage ceremony of Menaleus's daughter and son.

At this point, Homer cleverly compared Menaleus to Odysseus in the

reader's mind by suggesting the similarities between the both in

background, and undoubtedly survival. He also used this scene to

emphasize Telemachos's emotional instability as he burst out crying at

the mention of his father's name. The night ended and Telemachos was

finally noticed to be Odysseus's son by Helen, Menaleus's wife. Once this

took place, he conclusively mentioned his purpose in visiting To find

information about his father. Menaleus answered Telemachos by speaking of

his journey from Troy, and reassuring Telemachos of his father's wit and

cleverness, and almost certain survival.

After the men finished talking, Menaleus showered him with

complements and gifts (one refused, one accepted), and then Telemachos

left, feeling good about himself once again.

After this event, the scene changes back to Ithaca where the suitors

were planning their ambush on the young prince. Telemachos went back

home, only to find out that his father had already arrived before him.

This sets Odysseus (disguised as a beggar) and Telemachos up for the big

scene against the suitors, where father and son, side by side, rid Ithaca

of its cancerous cells, and reunite the royal family. Odysseus then

appeased and sacrificed to the god Poseidon in the name of his

misbehavior.

As Homer makes it apparent, there are other underlying themes

embedded in the story that would just confuse the reader if they were not

there. An example of this is the emotional aspects of both characters. If

one does not understand this key element, their is no way that the

sequence of events would cohere. Why didn't Telemachos look for his

father earlier? Why did Penelope wait twenty years to consider

remarrying? How did this affect Odysseus in his journey?". These are

questions that would go unanswered unless the reader reaches within the

emotions of the character.

In the case of Telemachos, his emotions shaped his well being. For

example, had it not been for Athene giving him confidence, by no means

would he ever have thought of taking such a voyage, hence, Telemachos

would have never participated in his final test against the suitors

either. His sorrow and anger from the loss of his father and his mother

constantly being attacked and proposed to by piranha-like suitors were

also driving forces towards his journey. Some of these are brought out in

different situations, both positive and negative, such as Menaleus's

mention of his father, which caused a sudden out-burst of tears, and

the proud and accomplished feeling he received from leaving Sparta..

Odysseus's situation was only slightly different. He, like

Telemachos had his worries about family-life, and his kingdom at stake,

but also had concerns about his wife, possibly triggered by the mention

of Agamemnon's by Proteus, who was killed by the hands of his own wife.

These factors probably had taken their toll on Odysseus. At the same time

he had the wrath of Poseidon to contend with. Another factor which could

have also lead to this distress could have been his visit to the

underworld, and in his entire journey, losing friends and comrades

regularly.

The last object of these journeys and possibly the most important

to the reader, is comprehending how these travels actually led to the

final test The battle against the suitors. This is considered the poem's

mental perspective. Odysseus had many things to overcome before he would

be ready to take on this responsibility. His journey prepared him for

that. For one, if he had not have perfected his tolerance abroad and

finely tuned his hubris problems there would have been no possible way

for him to undertake a role such as the beggar, where he must be

constantly enduring both verbal and physical attacks. There is also no

way that Odysseus could have sacrificed and begged forgiveness to the

sea-god Poseidon if he had not learned his lesson about respect from

Polyphemos and Zeus (eating Helios's cattle). These factors play an

immense role in the outcome of the poem. If it had not been for these

events, the story could never have taken place.

The same circumstances applied for Telemachos as well. His goal was

to reach a level of adulthood and to stand by his father's side, to

mature into a man, and most importantly to gain respect, and to withhold

and protect family Kleos. This happened when at first Athene inspired him

to go in search of his father. At that stage he was an inactive, and

boyish young prince. When the challenges rose, however (assisted by

Athene), Telemachos rose to meet those challenges. His first items of

business were to set the suitors straight at home. Although he was not

completely effective, he surprised them a great deal with his authority,

and even his own mother in later books. That proved that Telemachos was

gaining a new awareness, not only about his father, but about the

kingdom, his mother, and the role he needed to partake. By the end of his

long emotional journey, Telemachos realized what it took to be a man,

which could not have been possible without his escapades to Pylos and

Sparta.

In The Odyssey, Homer created a parallel for readers, between

Odysseus and Telemachos, father and son. Telemachos was supposedly

learning the role of his father, the king of Ithaca, to follow in the

footsteps. The two are compared in the poem from every aspect. However,

in analyzing The Odyssey, one may also presume that Homer had not

intended for the Telemachos to be as great a hero as his father. This may

be due to the fact that, for example, he never had a Trojan War to fight,

his setting is in a time of peace unlike his father's, and more notably-

although matured, Telemachus never really learned true leadership or

chivalry as did his father. Homer has presented the world with poetry so

unique and classic, so outstanding and awesome, that generations to come

will challenge themselves interpreting them until the end of time.

Please note that this sample paper on The Journey of Odysseus is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Journey of Odysseus, we are here to assist you.Your persuasive essay on The Journey of Odysseus will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Subcultures: The Backpacker Neo-Tribe

If you order your cheap custom essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Subcultures: The Backpacker Neo-Tribe. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Subcultures: The Backpacker Neo-Tribe paper right on time.

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The following research essay is an analysis on the sub-cultural formation of the neo-tribe.In effectively studying neo-tribes, I will endeavour to identify some of their key characteristics and work to highlight the dominant ideals pertained by these modern-day clans.To fully conceptualise the notion of neo-tribes I will use the example of the 'backpacker' and identify how they are a neo-tribalistic formation while also drawing on specific examples from backpacker culture to theorise the notion of neo-tribes.Following the analysis on ideology of the neo-tribe, I will focus on how style and space operate in further defining the backpacker tribe from 'mainstream' culture, and engage in how cultural capital is gained within the group.Also, in further integrating the concept of subculture and the neo-tribe into everyday life I will use specific examples of the ways in which backpackers experience the travel hub, Bangkok, Thailand, as well as Australian backpacker's activities at the Spanish cultural festival, the 'Running of the Bulls.'

As a subcultural formation, the neo-tribe exists in opposing dominant ideologies represented in mainstream culture.In defying subordination by hegemonous groups, sub-cultures seek to challenge these values through identifying their own opposing ideology, style and living practices.Conceptualised by Gramsci, hegemony refers "to the way in which dominant groups within society through a process of moral and intellectual leadership, gain a form of consent from subordinate groups." Subcultures, in particular neo-tribes, act as a resistant body to hegemonous ideals, providing means in which subordinate groups can resist interpellation into dominant ideology.Polhemus simply defines 'tribes' as deviant subcultural groups, "serving to distinguish 'us' from 'them.'" However, the neo-tribe beholds some kind of difference from merely an opposition to mainstream culture, but refers to an "empathetic 'sociality', which is expressed by a succession of ambiences, feelings and emotions."As Maffesoli highlights, resistance is also structured by the neo-tribe through a shared ethical ideal or understanding amongst its members, drawing on "the German Romantic idea of Stimmung (atmosphere)" .The backpacker reflects this notion of a shared, unifying ideology, rather than ideology hailing its audience to interpellate.This shared ideal refers to the backpacker's quest to see as much of the world as possible, for as long as possible while spending as little as possible.This is the binding ethos of the backpacker tribe, which further defines its members as part of a subculture through its resistance to capitalist ideology.They do not conform to hegemonic, capitalist ideals because the backpacker is not a true consumer - they do not work, spend any money, and especially do not seek out material goods in further renewing their identity.While this statement may seem paradoxical in nature, as neo-tribes, including backpackers, make use of commodities to encode meanings regarding style and taste, for the period of time at which the backpacker is removed from their 'normal' life they subvert the notion of the evolving consumer that must seek out new and original commodities in following fashion.However, I will not explicate this idea too much this early, as I will examine the intricacies of the function of style and taste later on in the essay.

Connected to the notion of a shared ideal is the shared social experience, and furthermore the sharing of the same territory.In illustrating the perception of the collective subject, "it may be said that the aesthetics of sentiment are in no way characterised by an individual or 'interior' experience, but on the contrary, by something essentially open to others." As Maffesoli identifies, the neo-tribe is characterised by the sharing of space and territory with other members.It is important to note that not only is the territory shared in terms of real space, but also within imagined spaces such as the Internet.The new and accessible technology allows any member of the tribe to partake within this community.This is highlighted on backpacker websites such as Backpackers on the Netand Backpack Outbackthat provide access to message-boards, creating a space that is shared amongst any person wishing to invest into the backpacker community.Within these online spaces, fellow backpackers share essential information regarding cheap accommodation, good bars, and tips for easy travelling.Because "Neo-tribes are marked by their fluidity they are locally condensed and dispersed, periodically assembled and scattered"the Internet provides an stable and easily accessible platform on which members can share some kind of territory or space, even despite its intangible form.

Another essential element to the shared social experience is the ritual, and "although [it] is not goal oriented, its repetition acts to confirm the groups view of itself." The ritual provides a space where members of the neo-tribe can reaffirm a sense of solidarity and individual identity within the tribe while also further subverting themselves from the mainstream.An example of a ritual that works in such ways is at the 'Running of the Bulls' festival in Spain.At this world-famous cultural festival, a most interesting neo-tribal gathering occurs at a piazza removed from the actual festivities.It is at the Muscles Bar that Australian, New Zealand and South African backpackers come togetherto celebrate their collective identity, further supporting the belief in a unified, tribalistic community.They subvert themselves from the main festivities in forming a temporary mini-colony of Anglo-backpackers where everyone gets drunk and performs the ritual of jumping off tall statues to be caught by fellow backpackers.This rite is of symbolic poignancy, as the fellow backpackers trust each other enough to risk injury or possible death if not caught by the unknown, yet fellow members on the ground.The tribalistic nature of the ritual is highlighted in how it is subverted from the mainstream; only backpackers from the three nations know about the mini-festival and there is no invitation, but merely common knowledge on the part of the backpacker from one of the three nations.This ritual identifies how "such activities may provide a focus for collective emotions, [and] constitute real underground movements" , identifying the connection between identity and space and how tribes seek to become a collective group, where experience is shared with other anonymous members within the margins of society.

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Parallel to the connection between identity and space is the importance of style as a signifier of identity.Style is important to a subculture, as it acts as a "communication of a significant difference…and the parallel communication of a group identity." Therefore style is an important medium at which neo-tribes encode meanings about who they are, including who they identify with and who they seek to distance themselves from.Because membership in the neo-tribe "does not require an admission procedure, [existing] solely by virtue of individual decisions to sport the insignia of tribal allegiance"the commodity is then an important tool of communication and identity for the tribe.Before analysis on the incorporation of commodities in forming a style for the neo-tribe it is important to examine the aforementioned paradox that the backpacker challenges notions of capitalist consumption yet uses its products to signify identity.Important to this idea is the difference between fashion and style, whereby "style isn't trendy.Quite the opposite.It's inherently conservative and traditional." Henceforth, style is employed by a subculture as a symbol of resistance to capitalist, commodity consumption.This is identified in backpacker culture through the sole concern with use value.Because the backpacker, as the name would suggest, lives out of a backpack, one would have little concern with commodities of exchange.The style of the backpacker further highlights this resistance to capitalist consumption and fashion, always with simple, casual clothes, often purchased from local markets and used practically, not for fashion.The fact that the backpacker style and image attempts to engage in an anti-style, which paradoxically is a style in itself, identifies the way that subcultural style provides resistance through not conforming to dominant codes of fashion.Therefore, members of a subculture, such as the backpacker "display their own codes or at least demonstrate that codes are there to be used and abused." This explains how the backpacker incorporates styles from other cultures in highlighting the global nature of their image, which revolves around use value and practicality, thus encoding ideals of anti-fashion into their clothing.

Another symbol of the backpacker tribe's resistance to dominant ideologies regarding fashion and image is the fact that their style is relatively static and unchanging.During the time they are away from their home the backpacker does not invest in fashion, ultimately resisting the cycle of consumerism and circular fashion trends.In fact, the style of the backpacker beholds far greater symbolic meaning of their identity, ideals, and membership to the tribe if their clothing is older and farther removed from hegemonic ideals of fashion. This represents the attempt by the backpacker to subvert ideology regarding the investment in fashion; as to invest in the tide of commodity consumption would be to highlight the importance of materialism, an ethos that is rejected by the backpacker tribe and often the reason for their escape to alternative cultures.

One problem with subcultural style is that the fresh codes of signification they provide are usually incorporated and legitimised in fashion.The process of legitimation, signifying the death of subcultural style, refers to the incorporation of "original innovations which signify 'subculture' are translated into commodities and made generally available, they become frozen."An example of a traditional stylistic symbol of the backpacker is the Birkenstock sandal, a Dutch-made sandal that was originally cheap, comfortable and for backpackers, symbolised the departure from rampant materialism and adherence to fashion codes.However, in the past few years Birkenstock sandal's have become hugely popular and have been incorporated into the fashion industry, drawing on the same symbolic value held within the backpacker tribe to connote to bohemian-like ideas of worldliness.This process signifies the death of the original subcultural style, because its main function is to "transcend fashion [and] differ from mainstream fashions in order to express social distance from hegemonous groups." Thus, while commodity consumption is used to indicate style, it resists dominant ideology of fashion because it constructs its own opposing codes and symbolic functions.Once legitimation takes place, tribal style no longer expresses social distance, but is swallowed up into mainstream culture and fashion.

The style and image of the backpacker can be classified as resistant to the image of the middle-aged, wealthy tourist, who is still enveloped in familiar commodities of exchange and luxury value.The minimal style of the backpacker represents the effort to immerse themselves in a different culture, as opposed to the mainstream tourists who view the culture, however are still somewhat removed from it.This is also highlighted by the different spaces that are inhabited by the mainstream, middle-aged tourist and the neo-tribal backpacker.For example, Bangkok, Thailand, has two distinct areas for backpackers and wealthy tourists.The backpacker centre, Kao San Road, appears just as any other gritty and claustrophobic road in Bangkok, with millions of food stalls, hawkers and speeding cars.The only difference is the large proportion of Westerners and the rundown buildings lining the street are backpacker guesthouses.The shabby hostels are symbolic in themselves the backpackers concern with use value and not comfort or secondary pleasures.However, Siam Square, the main tourist centre, is actually lifted above street level, where tourists can go from their hotels into the American-centric, mega-malls without even having to experience the throng of cars, beggars or people.Even their hotels provide creature comfort such as TV, mini bar, and even advertise 'Western Style Bathrooms.'This juxtaposition represents the backpacker's attempts to subvert themselves from the tourist by living at street level, in the Backpackers Ghetto while the tourist views Thai culture from a safe, comfortable, westernised space.For the backpacker this binary opposition represents a "mental map, rich in cultural detail and value judgement, [offering] them a distinct sense of [their] place but also a sense of the others place." Henceforth, the 'mental map' describes how the backpacker's perception of the tourist is loaded with a value judgement of them as a homogenous other, a faceless mass.

The backpacker's obsession with immersion is extremely important because it provides 'authentication', meaning "the ascription of authenticity to places and experiences by labelling them as 'traditional' or 'natural.'" Therefore, constructed tourist areas lack the authenticity of realistic and natural culture of a country. Important to understanding 'authentication' and the quest for immersion is Bourdieu's work on cultural capital.Fully conceptualised in his book Distinction, Bourdieu defines cultural capital as "knowledge that is accumulated through upbringing and education which confers social status." In the context of the backpacker tribe, cultural capital is defined through experiences of the world, and knowledge of foreign countries.One who is knowledgeable on travel tips, stories and specific advice holds a great amount of cultural capital.Within the backpacker tribe, knowledge and information not only establish a miniature class system but is also used as a virtual currency, which is traded with other backpackers in further expanding knowledge, and thus gaining more cultural capital.Vital to acquiring greater cultural capital for a backpacker is seeking out the natural and authentic experience, as finding the true essence of a foreign country allows them to effectively 'collect places', a process which allows them to build a database of representations and knowledge of the world as a series of differences from home. This process can only be performed if the traveller is basing these representations on the true essence of a culture, thus the quest for authenticity further exemplifies how backpackers seek to subvert the mainstream tourist.

The fascination with the authentic, represented in attempts by the backpacker to subvert themselves from the 'mainstream' tourist, surmises the core ethos of what it means to be a backpacker, ultimately describing why areas like Nimbin, Kao San Rd in Bangkok, Thailand, and Prague in Czechoslovakia are backpacker hubs.It is because they represent an escape from capitalist consumer culture.While this ideal may no longer be true, their popularity amongst the backpacker tribe has only increased because the representation of these spaces as escaping the clutches of capitalist commodity culture is still alive and well, symbolising a retreat to authentic and real culture.

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MANAGING GLOBAL HUMAN RESOURCES

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Cultural Forces

Phases of Globalization

Recruitment & Selection Process

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Special Activities

Compensation Pressures

Labor Relations

Unions

The environment in which business competes is rapidly becoming globalized. More and more companies are entering international markets by exporting their products overseas, building plants in other countries, and entering into alliances with foreign companies. Global competition is driving changes in organizations throughout the world. Companies are attempting to gain a competitive advantage, which can be provided by international expansion. Deciding whether to enter foreign markets and whether to develop plants or other facilities in other countries is no simple matter and many human resource issues surface. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright; 54)

Doing business globally requires that adaptations be made to reflect cultural and other factors that differ from country to country and from continent to continent. The nature and stability of political systems vary in character and stability, with contracts suddenly becoming unenforceable because of internal political factors. Human resource regulations and laws vary among countries in character and detail. In many countries in Western Europe, laws on labor unions and employment make it difficult to reduce the number of workers because required payments to ex-employees can be very high. Equal employment legislation exists to varying degrees. In some countries, laws address issues such as employment discrimination and sexual harassment.

CULTURAL FORCES

Cultural forces represent another important concern affecting international human resource management. Culture is composed of the societal forces affecting the values, beliefs, and actions of a distinct group of people. (Mathis & Jackson, 171) Cultural differences certainly exist between nations, but also between countries. Getting individuals from different ethic or tribal backgrounds to work together may be very difficult in some parts of the world. Culture is important to human resources for two reasons. It determines the other factorspolitical-legal, economic, and education-human capital factors. Culture affects human capital, because if education is greatly valued by culture, then members of the community try to increase their human capital. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright; 57) Economic conditions vary also from country to country. Many lesser-developed nations are receptive to foreign investment in order to create jobs for their growing populations. In many developed countries, especially in Europe, unemployment has grown, but employment restrictions and wage levels remain high.

PHASES OF GLOBALIZATION

The internationalization of U.S. corporations has grown than the internationalization of human resource management. International human resource management differs from domestic human resource management in several ways. In the first place, it places a greater emphasis on functions and activities such as relocation, orientation, and translation services to help employees adapt to a new and different environment outside their own country. Assistance with tax matters, baking, investment management, home rental while on assignment, and coordination of home visits is also usually provided by the human resource department. Larger corporations have a full-time staff of human resource managers devoted to assisting globalization. For example, McDonald's has a team of HR directors who travel around the world to help country managers stay updated on international concerns, policies, and programs. The human resource department in an overseas unit must be particularly responsive to the cultural, political, and legal environments. Companies such as Shell, Xerox, Levi Strauss, Digital, and Honeywell have made a special effort to create codes of conduct for employees throughout the world to make certain that standards of ethical and legal behavior are known and understood. (Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell; 6)

A growing number of organizations that operate only within one country are recognizing that they must change and develop a more international perspective. Organizations may pass through three stages that are import-export (national) companies, multinational enterprises (MNE), and global organizations. National companies do not become global companies immediately. Involvement in international HRM depends greatly on a companys phase of globalization. Import-export firms. Firms in the first phase of globalization simply move products across national boundaries. The firm does not employ people in other countries, except a few managers responsible for negotiating business agreements. These agreements usually involve buying or selling complete products or services. Import-export firms need to understand their trading partners cultures and usually must overcome communication barriers to negotiate agreements. Negotiations are usually done by expatriate representatives, but expatriates are not employed as extensively by import-export firms as by multinational enterprises. HR policies and practices remain relatively unchanged from the companys traditional home-base practices. (HR Magazine,06-01-15)

Multinational enterprises (MNEs). Firms in the second phase of globalization have strategic corporate units located in foreign countries. Part of the firms goods or services may be produced in one country, then possibly moved to another country for additional assembly, and ultimately distributed to other countries where they are sold by employees of the firm. MNEs typically make extensive use of expatriate managers who are sent from headquarters to oversee foreign operations. Expatriate managers play important strategic roles. They coordinate between subsidiaries and headquarters, implement strategy, ensure the quality and effectiveness of organizational control systems, and manage global information systems. They also gain expertise in international business skills that are critical to ensuring that top executive positions are filled by competent replacements with the necessary international experience and perspectives. Multinational enterprises hiring workers in foreign countries must create and administer HR practices adapted to each country. In addition to hiring, some of the most significant HR issues for MNEs are training a foreign workforce, complying with the host countrys employment laws, monitoring labor costs, selecting expatriates, and helping them and their families succeed in the new assignment. (HR Magazine, 06-01-15)

Global firms. Firms in the final phase of globalization have strategic corporate units in multiple countries that interact with both headquarters and each other. Specialized functions may be performed in different countries - for example, engineering in one country, research in another country and production in yet another. People and products are moved extensively across national boundaries to meet company demands. Global firms make moderate use of expatriate managers. Other professional employees may also be asked to relocate. Expatriate managers provide leadership and continuity in the various divisions. These foreign assignments help the managers in their career development, with one or more foreign assignments considered essential for progression to higher levels of leadership.

RECRUITMENT & SELECTION PROCESS

Employee recruitment in other countries is subject to more government regulations than it is in the United States. Regulations range from those that cover procedures for recruiting employees to those that govern the employment of foreign labor or require the employment of the physically disabled, war veterans, or displaced persons. (Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell; p. 64) All countries have work-permit or visa restrictions that apply to foreigners. A work permit is a document issued by a government that grants the authority to foreigners to find employment in that country. Foreign workers invited to come to perform needed labor are the guest workers. The employment of foreigners may involve lower direct labor costs, but indirect cost such as language training, health services, recruitment, transportation and so on may be substantial.

The selection process for an international assignment should provide a true picture of the life, work, and culture to which the employee may be sent. Human resource managers should prepare a comprehensive description of the job to be done. The description should note responsibilities that would be unusual in home country. The responsibilities might include negotiating with public officials; interpreting local work codes; and responding to ethical, moral, and personal issues such as religious prohibitions and personal freedoms. The selection process should emphasize different employment factors, depending on the extent that one would have with the local culture and the degree to which the foreign environment differs from the home environment. If a candidate for expatriation is willing to live and work in a foreign environment, and indication of his or her tolerance of cultural differences should be obtained. The finding employees who can meet the demands of working in a foreign environment can be one of the toughest jobs for many organizations. Many companies have been hesitant to send women on overseas assignments. Executives assume that women do not want international assignments, but the reality is that the rate is equal to that of men. It is also important that companies are increasingly using transnational teams to conduct international business. These teams are especially useful for performing tasks that the firm as a whole is not yet structured to accomplish. They might be used to transcend the existing organizational structure to customize a strategy for different geographic regions, transfer technology form one part of the world to another, and communicate between headquarters and subsidiaries in different countries. The fundamental task in forming a transnational team is assembling the right group of people who can work together effectively to accomplish the goals of the team. Many companies try to build variety into their teams in order to maximize responsiveness to the special needs of different countries.

SPECIAL ACTIVITIES

Employees that work in international area face special activities as orientation and training, continuing employee development, and readjustment training and development. The orientation and training that expatriates and their families receive before the international assignment begins include work adjustment, interaction adjustment and general adjustment such as language, culture, history, and living conditions. Career planning and continued involvement of expatriates in corporate employee development activities are essential. One of the greatest deterrents to accepting foreign assignments is employees' concern that they will be out of sight and out of mind. If businesses are to be managed effectively in an international setting, managers need to be educated and trained in global management skills. For example, Levi Strauss has identified the following six attributes of the global manager. Those are the ability to seize strategic opportunities; ability to manage highly decentralized organizations; awareness of global issues; sensitivity to issues to diversity; competence in interpersonal relations; and skill in building community. (Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell; 640)

COMPENSATION PRESSURES

Organizations with employees in many different countries face some special compensation pressures. Variations in laws, living costs, tax policies, and other factors all must be considered in establishing the compensation for expatriate managers and professionals. Even the value of the U.S. dollar can be tracked and adjustments made as the dollar rises or falls in relation to currency rates in other countries. Add to all of these concerns the need to compensate employees for the costs of housing, schooling of children, and yearly transportation home for themselves and their family members. Many multinational firms have compensation programs that use the balance-sheet approach that provides international employees with a compensation package that equalizes cost differences between the international assignment and the same assignment in the home country. Unlike the balance-sheet approach, a global market approach to compensation requires that the international assignment must be viewed as continual though the assignment may take the employee to different countries for differing lengths of time.

LABOR RELATIONS

The nature of employee and labor relations varies form country to country. When international operations are considered, concerns related to health safety, and security must be evaluated. It is important to understand the applicable labor-management laws, regulations, and practices before commencing operations in foreign countries. With more and more expatriates working internationally, especially in the less-developed countries, health and safety issues are arising and addressing these issues is part of the human resource role. Another consideration is provision of emergency evacuation services. Many global firms purchase coverage for their international employees from an organization that provides emergency services, such as International SOS, Global Assistance Network, or U.S. Assist.

UNIONS

The role of unions differs from the unions in the United Stated to the unions in other countries. It depends on many factors, such as the level of per capita, mobility between management and labor, homogeneity of labor and level of employment. Labor relations in Europe differ form those in the United States in certain characteristics In Europe, organizations negotiate the agreement with the union at the national level though the employer association representing their particular industry. Unions in many European countries have more political power than those in the U.S., with the result that when employers deal with the union they are dealing indirectly with the government. There is a greater tendency in Europe for salaried employees to be unionized.

WORK CITED

Cherrington, David J., Laura Zaugg Middleton. An Introduction To Global Business Issues. http//www.elibrary.com

HR Magazine. 06-01-15

Internet available http//www.ihrin.org/affiliates/index.cfm

Mathis, Robert L., John H. Jackson. Human Resource Management. Essential Perspectives. 1st edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 1.

Noe, Raymond A., John R. Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, and Patrick M. Wright. Human Resource Management. Gaining A Competitive Advantage. rd edition. Irwin McGraw-Hull. Boston, 000.

Sherman, Arthur, George Bohlander, and Scott Snell. Managing Human Resources. 11th edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 18.

Cherrington, David J., Laura Zaugg Middleton. An Introduction To Global Business Issues. http//www.elibrary.com

HR Magazine. 06-01-15

Internet available http//www.ihrin.org/affiliates/index.cfm

Mathis, Robert L., John H. Jackson. Human Resource Management. Essential Perspectives. 1st edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 1.

Noe, Raymond A., John R. Hollenbeck, Barry Gerhart, and Patrick M. Wright. Human Resource Management. Gaining A Competitive Advantage. rd edition. Irwin McGraw-Hull. Boston, 000.

Sherman, Arthur, George Bohlander, and Scott Snell. Managing Human Resources. 11th edition. South-Western College Publishing. Cincinnati, 18.

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Motivation in an Educational context

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INTRODUCTION

Motivation is the process of initiating and directing behaviour based on the persistence of effort to satisfy an individual goal or need (Petri, 11; Robbins et al, 000 and Robbins et al, 001).There are two approaches to understanding motivation, each of which has theories expanding to support the nature of motivation.Content theories focuses on what motivates an individual. In contrast to process theories of motivation which focus on how individual behaviour is motivated. This essay will focus on motivation in an educational context and the importance to provide opportunities and motivation for students.The purpose of this essay is to present a theoretical overview of the key differences between content theories and process theories of motivation. Then a programme developed from a theory to be applied to an undergraduate business course at Monash University.The motivational programme will focus on improving the assessment technique used by lecturers and tutors (¡§teachers¡¨) that will motivate and improve undergraduate students learning ability. The aim will be to encourage students to gain a better understanding of the core concepts of business.Assessment in universities needs to be reshaped in order to motivate students.

CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Content theories are also referred to, as need theories.That is, motivational theories that look at what individual needs motivate and direct behaviour to respond to specific goals. Many early theories from the 150's, include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y and Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory, established core concepts which have helped explain motivation especially in an organisational setting.McClelland's three needs theory is a more contemporary view on the content theory approach to motivation that focuses on three important needs in work situations.Each theory identifies individual needs in order to understand behaviour.The main factors that underlie this approach is the need to understand that individuals have different needs, and what can be offered in response to these different needs as well as the importance on the external working environment to give individuals the opportunity to satisfy their needs (Robbins et al, 000, p558).An example of a content theory of motivation is Douglas McGregor theory of the ¡¥economic man¡¦. He proposedcontrasting views of human nature.

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McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y suggested one negative (Theory X) and one positive (Theory Y) view on human beings. He ¡§concluded that a manager's view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mould his or her behaviour towards employees according to these assumptions¡¨ (Robbins et al, 001, p1).

The negative assumptions were labeled ¡¥Theory X¡¦, which held four dominant assumptions of workers.Workers dislike work and go to great strengths to avoid it.Based on this it is believed that workers need to be punished with tight control systems in order for them to achieve goals.In addition, workers lack responsibility, thus need formal directions from superiors to perform.Such Theory X workers are predominately motivated by lower-order needs according to Maslow's hierarchy for example they need security.In contrast, ¡¥Theory Y¡¦ assumes higher order needs dominate individuals.Thus, Theory Y workers enjoy responsibility where they can exhibit self-direction and self-control.Therefore, in order to motivate workers, mangers need to provide a working environment that provides challenging jobs and minimal formalisation.

Applying this to an educational context, it can be assumed that teachers can either have a Theory X or a Theory Y view of students.That is, teachers can view students as ¡§lazy or un-cooperative¡¨ (Theory X) OR as ¡§being clever and work hard¡¨ (Theory Y).Teachers that adapt a Theory Y approach, are more likely to be attuned to students¡¦ needs, actively participate with students to increase student skill-development and learning (OECD, 000).

It is important for teachers to become more student-centered. Therefore assessment must ¡§focus more on student learning outcomes and students¡¦ attitudes about what they are learning and their role in the teaching and learning process¡¨ (Carey, Wallace and Carey, 001). This can be better understood by considering process theories of motivation.Process theories of motivation set out to explain how people choose a course of action they will pursue, not solely on individual needs like content theories.

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Despite the fact that content theories of motivation have helped many organisations understand employee motivation, many of their concepts alone do not provide a comprehensive understanding of motivation.Therefore, the introduction of another approach to understanding motivation was brought about. Process theories of motivation attempt to explain the process of arousing behaviour, sustaining and regulating the pattern of behaviour (Ames and Ames, 18). Theories include goal setting, reinforcement, equity and expectancy theory.¡§These theories attempt to explain why people choose to behave in a certain way and the reasons they react as they do¡¨ (Robbins et al, 000, p558).In contrast to content theories of motivation, which looked at what initiates behaviour to satisfy a need, this approach broadens the perspective of motivation.It looks at the underlying reasoning that influence individuals to behave and respond in a certain way.Therefore, motivating students by either punishing them to perform or encouraging self-direction, the goal setting theory, identifies underlying factors that achieve a given behaviour, which is the key to understanding the process approach to motivation.

Goal setting theory states that ¡§specific and difficult goals, with goal feedback, lead to higher performance¡¨ (Robbins et al, 001, p770). That is, work motivation can be increased with goal specific directed behaviour.It also proposes that difficult goals, provided that the individual has accepted them, lead to higher performance than general goals. However, feedback is essential in the achievement of specific and difficult goals ¡§because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do¡¨ (Robbins et al, 000, p55). In order to gain the performance benefits of specific goals, feedback helps shape the individuals behaviour.Better still, self-generated feedback is a greater motivator as it allows the individual to monitor their progress.

Robbins et al (000) suggested that goal setting theory is best suited to cultures were there is a moderate power distance, low in uncertainty avoidance and high in quantity of life like Australia and New Zealand.These ensure a reasonable level of independence amongst individuals and those individuals will not be threatened to take on difficult goals.Also the importance of performance is shared by all.

In goal setting theory, ¡§the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influenced by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which the goals are set¡¨ (Brotherton, 1, p6).Therefore, in an educational context the teacher and student need to work together to determine behavioural strategies that will lead to performance.End-of course evaluations conducted by Monash University ¡§elicit students¡¦ attitudes about instructors and the role that they play in the teaching/learning process¡¨ (Carey, Wallace and Carey, 001).Such instruments assess students¡¦ motivation for learning and allow for continuous course and program improvement.

MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMME

Feedback from end-of course evaluations ¡§usually prompts an ongoing adaptation of a course to the emerging learning needs of its students¡¨ (Panasuk and Leabaron, 1).It was found that ¡§students consistently expressed views that¡Knew assessment motivated them to work in different ways¡¨ (Sambell and McDowell, 18).The aim in developing motivational programme for undergraduate students will focus on assessment reform applying the goal setting theory. This proposition will encourage students to target specific goals, in hope that it will result in higher performance.The programme will involve students in their evaluation process in order to motivate them to actively participate in their skill-development and improve learning.¡§Every act of assessment gives a message to students about what they should be learning and how they should go about it¡¨(Sambell and McDowell, 18).The programme will suggest that goals based evaluation criteria will improve students¡¦ motivation in turn achieving a greater level of performance.

The programme will focus on behaviour related to undergraduate business students at Monash University.It will include a check mark grading system that will be designed around behavioural objectives. ¡§The check-mark systems sets a specific standard for document quality, and instructors give a paper a ¡¥check mark¡¦ when it meets the standard¡¨ (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1).Students are required to set their own achievement goals, in terms of grades based on their overall subject result.That way they can evaluate their progress toward their goals on their own with each assignment mark.¡§This necessitates defining goals for oneself, using self-directed strategies to accomplish these goals, and assessing progress¡¨ (Larsen and Thisted, 1).

The programme will involve behavioural objective questionnaires that will identify what the students want to achieve at Monash.This will include long-term goals (degree completion) as well as short-term goals (average subject result e.g. distinction, right down to improving structure of writing).¡§Defining tasks in terms of short-term goals can help students to associate effort with success, but of course long-term goals are also needed if students are to become lifelong ¡Vlearners¡¨ (OECD, 000, p.1). It will also involve social objectives (develop a good rapport with teachers). ¡§Using behavioural objectives may help students organize and structure¡¨ their learning and ¡§may produce positive attitudes toward learning¡¨ (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1).Also, they outline behavioural objectives of each student, which are associated with goal difficulty.

In addition, a student performance evaluation form is to be handed in with each assignment, outlining specific goals that the essay is to achieve. For example, good use of relevant and current references, each paragraph systematically links one to the other etc.Also the overall mark the student expects on the assignment based on their effort.

From this teachers are to use the check mark system and self-evaluation system to grade the work.It is very important to give feedback, especially in relation to student evaluation forms outlining their objectives.Limited feedback such as ¡§À¡¨ meaning well done or ¡§?¡¨ meaning re-consider, needs to be more specific.Effective feedback should provide shorthand comments, throughout the paper and on the marking sheet, clearly clarifying any issues.Such feedback is called evaluative feedback.¡§Evaluative feedback helps the individual understand the performance information by comparing it to standards or to the individual's own past performance¡¨ (Larsen and Thisted, 1). In addition, it is important to direct them where possible to achieve a higher mark, therefore feedback needs to be constructive.¡§Constructive feedback is task-specific and focuses attention on the task¡¨(Larsen and Thisted, 1). By focusing on the task and ¡§providing target objectives results in the achievement of more objectives¡¨ (Sambell and McDowell, 18). When students use the check-mark system, they can identify what they must do to achieve higher marks.Obviously, the goal difficulty set by students varies among the constraints of his/her ability.

In this programme, it is important to provide specific feedback and include student participation in selecting objectives. In light of this, between the behavioural objectives system, grading method and student outcomes, students should actually be motivated to increase performance under these systems.

CONCLUSION

The theoretical issues proposed in motivational theories such as the economic man developed by McGregor and the benefits of setting specific and difficult goals are important. The distinction on how they motivate an individual is a major influence on behaviour. Applying motivational theory to an educational context we draw our attention toward skill development, satisfaction and achievement. In developing a motivational programme, the focus was on assessment reform focusing on undergraduate business students at Monash University.Teachers and students need to work together in assessing ones performance. It is believed that ¡§individuals are mutually motivated to learn when they do not have to fear failure, when they perceive what they are learning as being personally meaningful and relevant and when they are in respectful and supportive relationships with teachers¡¨ (OECD, 000, p).Therefore, by using a goal setting approach to motivate students, student participation in selection of objectives in assessment criteria is important.Also teachers need to provide more specific feedback.It has been found in ¡§research on the motivational value of goals, both the check-mark and behavioural/performance objective systems seem to motivate students to improve performance¡¨ (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1).However, with today's rapid change and emergence of new knowledge and theory, universities will have more concepts on which to build and develop on ¡§motivating the school's participants so as to obtain the best possible educational results¡¨ (Panasuk and Lebaron, 1).

REFERENCE LIST

1. Ames, C. and Ames, R., 18, Research on Motivation in Education, Academic Press, Inc., California.

. Brotherton, C., 1, Social Psychology and Management Issues for a changing society, Open University Press, Buckingham.

. Carey, L. M., Wallace, T, L. and Carey, J. O., Spring-001, ¡§Assessing Students¡¦ Course Related Attitudes Using Keller's Model of Academic Motivation¡¨, Academic Exchange Quarterly, Vol. 5, Issue , p87-6.

4. Fishkin, A. S., Cramond, B. and Olszewski-Kubilius, P., 1, Investigating Creativity in Youth Research and Methods, Hampton Press Inc., USA.

5. Green, R. G., Bretzin, R., Leininger, C. and Stauffer, R., Spring-Summer 001, ¡§Research learning attributes of graduate students in social work, psychology, and business¡¨, Journal of Social Work Education, Vol.7, Issue , p-4.

6. Larsen, H. H. and Thisted, L. N., March-1, ¡§Relationship between feedback and self-development¡¨, Group & Organization Management, Thousand Oaks, Vol. 4, Issue 1, p5-7.

7. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (¡§OECD¡¨), 000, Motivating Students for Lifelong Learning¡¨ OECD, USA.

8. Panasuk, R. M. and Lebaron, J., Winter-1, ¡§Student Feedback A tool for improving instruction in graduate education¡¨, Education, Vol. 10, Issue , p56-6.

. Petri, H. L., 11, Motivation Theory, Research, and Applications, (rd Edition), Wadsworth Publishing Company, California.

10. Robbins, S. P., Bergman, R., Stagg, I. and Coulter, M., 000, Management, (nd Edition), Prentice Hall, Australia.

11. Robbins, S. P., Millet, B., Cacioppe, R. and Waters-Marsh, T., 001, Organisational Behaviour Learning and managing in Australia and New Zealand, (rd Edition), Prentice Hall, French Forest.

1. Sambell, Kay and McDowell, L., December-18, ¡§The construction of the hidden curriculum Messages and Meanings in the assessment of student learning¡¨, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. , Issue 4, p1-40.

1. Scheuer, S., 000, Social and economic Motivation at Work Theories of Motivation Reassessed, Copenhagen Business School Press, Denmark.

14. Sorenson, R. L., Savage, G. T. and Larry, D., 1, ¡§Motivating students to improve business writing A comparison between goal-based and punishment-based grading systems¡¨, The Journal of Business Communication, Urbana, Vol. 0, Issue , p11-15.

15. Young, P T., 161, Motivation and Emotion A survey of the determinants of human and animal activity, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

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Tampa

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Tampa, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Tampa paper at affordable prices !This paper attempts to explore the judgements and issues arising from the Tampa affair that took place in September 001.The Government's decision to deny entry of the MV Tampa into Australian territory raised several debated concerns both nationally and internationally.Despite the Government's constant re-iteration of the concept of the protection of national sovereignty, these constitutional issues argued in the Federal Court, primarily concerned the legality of the steps the government took in dealing with the situation.The two main issues in dispute werewhat is the scope of the executive's power to exclude, expel, and detain 'aliens'? And if so, has such power been abrogated by legislation? In looking at the role of prerogatives and analysing the Federal Court's decision, we will be able to answer these questions, and establish why there was a division amongst the court on these issues.

In response to a request by the Australian Coast Guard, a Norwegian carrier ship, the MV Tampa rescued 4 from a sinking fishing boat.After mounting concerns that the rescuees were ill, the rescuees were taken to Nauru and New Zealand after they were denied entry into Australian territory.This was to initially determine whether the rescuees would be entitled to protection as refugees, despite that the Migration Act 158 (Cth) could regulate the "entry, presence, departure and deportation of non-citizens." The Act also permitted and empowered officers to board and search shipsand also conferred on the Government powers to detain and remove unlawful citizens .The argument presented by the Victorian Council for Civil Liberties (VCCL) in the initial hearing heard by North J, was that the rescuees were unlawfully detained and sought relief on the grounds of habeas corpus to release the rescuees from detention.The VCCL argued that the Governments acts resulted in a total restraint on the freedom of the rescuees as they were detained on board the vessel .In the initial hearing North J concluded that the Migration Act was intended to regulate the whole area of removal of aliens, and leaves no exercise of any prerogative power on the subject .However, the judgement was over turned on appeal after the immediate subsequent passing of the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth).

Role of Prerogatives

Custom Essays on Tampa

Prerogative powers are the common law powers of the Crown ultimately derived from the Queen.They are fundamental for Australia to function as a sovereign nation with the Commonwealth inheriting all the prerogatives powers of the Queen Davis v Commonwealth.The role of prerogatives is to allow the executive to make decisions which are in the nation's best interest without any statutory authority.S61 of the Constitution provides the executive with this discretionary power

"The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested on the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-general as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and the laws of the Commonwealth."

However, the scope of the Executive's power is not exhaustive and the Executive must function within the powers conferred to it by the Constitution.In addition, the Executive is further limited as Parliament can limit or extinguish prerogative power by statute.

The Executive's Scope and Power of the Prerogative to Exclude, Expel and Detain Unlawful Non-Citizens

In the initial hearing heard in the Federal Court, North J presiding alone held that the prerogative powers did not extend to the detainment and expulsion of non-citizens. His honour considered matter by way of habeas corpus, stressing the need for statutory authority as the basis for any detention if any right to habeas corpus is to be abrogated. In addition, his honour examined the lack of historical evidence as did Barton J in Robtelmes v Brenan

"There are dicta of Blackstone and Chitty to the effect that the Crown by its prerogative can expel even alien friends; but there does not seem to have been any attempt since the revolution to exercise such prerogative, and the extrusion of alien friends has since then always been effected by statutory authority."

In concluding his finding, his honour found that the exclusion, expulsion and detainment of unlawful non-citizens was not a legitimate exercise of the prerogative.

On appeal, Black CJ dissented against the majority and adopted a similar view to North J, stating that such power must stem from statutory authority and that the executive's power is not unlimited

"No executive authority, apart from that conferred by statute, to subject anyone in Australia, citizen or non-citizen to detention."

His honour also based his ruling on lack of historical evidence

"A long period of disuse extinguishes the prerogative, because it would be illusory to say that parliament has, in such circumstances, made the choice to leave the prerogative in the Crown's hands."

His honour finds it clear that the lack of a modern existence and exercise of the power, infers that the power is deemed invalid, hence the scope is limited.

In conclusion his honour affirms that it is doubtful that asserted prerogative continues to exist at common law

"Parliament intended that in the field of exclusion, entry and expulsion of aliens the Act should operate to the exclusion of any executive power derived otherwise than from powers conferred by Parliament."

In contrast, the majority ruling of Beaumont and French JJ clearly shows a strong agreement that there was a prerogative power that extended to the exclusion, expulsion and detainment of unlawful non-citizens.French J begins his judgment with a quote from Zines

"At the time of federation and the early years of the Commonwealth it seems to have been assumed that a number of the common law prerogatives of the Crown such as the power to declare war, enter treaties or acquire territories, were not subsumed in S 61 but remained with the Crown to be exercised upon the advice of Imperial Ministers."

He then goes on to state his basic underlying principle for his reasoning

"The scope of the executive power conferred by S61 of the Constitution is to be measured by reference to Australia's status as a sovereign nation and by reference to the terms of the Constitution itself."

His honour interprets S61 with a broad view, in that the Executive has an unlimited power to do what is in the nation's best interest.He concedes that when assessing the scope of S61, one must look to how it applies to the maintenance of the constitution.Thus, it can be concluded that S61 applies to the purpose of the constitution.

French J then continues his argument by stating

"The power to determine who may come into Australia is so central to its sovereignty that it is not to be supposed that the Government of the nation would lack under the power conferred upon it directly by Constitution, the ability to prevent people not part of the Australian community, from entering."

Again, his honour reiterates the idea of the nation's sovereignty and the nature of its importance.

In conclusion, his honour states that the steps taken were within the scope of Executive power, and that the task of the court is to decide whether the power exists, not whether it was exercised wisely and well.

In his judgement, Beaumont J agrees with French J claiming that the primary judge (North J) in the initial judgement unsuitably approached the issue and instead of addressing the issue of the scope of executive power, the "primary judge should have inquired whether at common law (habeas corpus being a common law remedy) there was a legal right in the occupants to enter Australia.If his Honour had asked this question, it would, in accordance with the settled course of authority, have been answered in the negative."

His honour then proceeds to affirm the relevant course of authority of Musgrove v Toy [181] AC 7 where the Privy Council held that apart from statute, an alien has no legal right to enforceable by action to enter Victoria. His Honour again re-instated the point by looking at Lord Atkinson's judgement in Attorney-General (Canada) v Cain [106] AC 54 (at 547)

"One of the rights possessed by the supreme power in every state is the right to refuse to permit an alien to enter that state…Vattel, Law of Nations, book 1, s1; book , s15."

Finally Beaumont concludes that "The occupants had no legal right at common law enforceable in a court to enter Australia.It must follow in my view, that no foundation existed for the grant of a common law prerogative of a writ of habeas corpus compelling their entry into Australia."

It can be seen that the majority judgement re-enforces the notion that Australia's sovereignty is undermined if Australia is not allowed to decide who enters its borders.Beaumont and French JJ seem take the view that S61 is immensely fundamental and that the entire issue of parliamentary sovereignty is undermined. However it can also be concluded from this view that the majority's argument does not look strong if such prerogative powers can be enacted which are so grossly outdated.The cases that Beaumont J seeks to rely upon are old and arguably obsolete, which also can be seen as undermining parliamentary sovereignty.

Thus it seems that the minority judgement is more preferable.Both Black CJ and North J recognise that such an exercise of the prerogative can exist, however the scope of S61 limits the power conferred upon the Executive to not only deal with the detainment of non-citizens, but most issues concerning national sovereignty and what is in the nations best interest.However, it can also be argued that legislation dealing the regulation of prerogative power was enacted literally, to prevent the 'abuse' and 'misuse' of the power, thus the notion that the ruling majority judges seem to have found of unlimited executive power is severely questioned.

To What Extent has any such Power Been Abrogated by Legislation?

Even if the prerogative did once exist, it seems clear the power has been abrogated by the Migration Act 158 (Cth).In his ruling North J argued that the scope of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) replaced any likelihood for the prerogative to be exercised in this area.By looking at the purpose of the act expressed in S4, the dissenting judges found that the clear intention of the act was to regulate the presence and entry on non-citizens in Australia as it is in the nation's best interest.Black CJ stated the purpose of the Act as being "to regulate, in the national interest, the coming into, and presence in, Australia of non-citizens".Thus it can be construed, that the purpose of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) along with the Border Protection Legislation Amendment Act 1 (Cth) shows thatParliament intended the law, to clearly state whom it seeks to exclude from Australia and is highly unlikely that there be such a continuation of the exercise of the prerogative power.

French and Beaumont JJ also looked at the purpose of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) but found that the abrogation of the prerogative was not expressly stated in a provision of the Act. Thus, since Parliament did not intend to abrogate the prerogative, their honours held that there was a valid exercise of the Commonwealth's power under S61 of the Constitution; hence the Commonwealth did not unlawfully detain the rescuees.

Therefore, it can be seen that the minority judgement is again preferable.It seems reasonably clear Parliament has 'covered the field' and has intended to regulate in detail the topic of expulsion, exclusion and detainment of unlawful non-citizens.In addition, it is clear that if legislation is enacted that covers a prerogative, then that prerogative should no longer be deemed to be in existence.

The Legislative Response to the Tampa Litigation

In a response to the Tampa litigation, the government was quick to pass the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth).The purpose of the bill included new and amended provisions of the Customs Act 101 to allow the interception, detainment and expulsion of persons attempting to enter Australia without Visas.The justification for the passing of the bill can arguably be seen as the Government's backing of the key statement behind Prime Minister Howard's electoral campaign, "Every nation has the right to effectively control its borders and to decide who comes here and under what circumstances, and Australia has no intention of surrendering or compromising that right."

Thus, the Government was able to pass the bill without any legal scrutiny, as Mr Howard argued it was necessary to legislate against further possibilities of illegal encounters into Australian territory.In justifying the passing of the bill, Mr Howard stated that its purpose was to ensure that the Executive determine who comes into Australia and under what circumstances "The protection of our sovereignty, including Australia's sovereign right to determine who shall enter Australia is a matter for the Australian government and this parliament."Consequently, the Executive was to be removed from any judicial review and oversight.

However, it seems clear that the bill was only a legislative response to Tampa litigation and the problems for the executive that arose from it. But for the passing of the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth), the issue of the legality of the Government's steps it took in dealing with the rescuees aboard the Tampa would have been reviewed and clearly found illegal due to legislation (Migration Act 158 (Cth)) that arguably expressly dealt with the issue.Thus, it can be inferred that the Government was clearly unconcerned with the existence of the prerogative.Consequently, the Government's recklessness in dealing with the situation caused it to act immediately without considering the possible legal repercussions.

Conclusion

The Tampa litigation is a highly controversial and debatable issue and it is not surprising that the Court was divided on the issue.Despite the ruling judgement, the finding of the minority seems to be more persuasive.It seems unambiguously clear that parliament intended the issue to be governed by statute as the purpose of the Migration Act 158 (Cth) expressly dealt with it, thus the executive did not have the scope of the prerogative power to detain the rescuees aboard the Tampa.However, several other contentious issues arose from the litigation - we are forced to review the Federal Court and its decision to agree with the government on the issue, as the effect of the court's decision was to pass a bill that arguably already existed.Arguably, the role of the judiciary is to keep the government under control, and even though the decision of the court can be seen to reflect public opinion, it is not the court's role to undemocratically side with the government because of public opinion. Finally, we see the beginning of the erosion of a fundamental doctrine, the separation of powers, as the government chose to act indecisively, consequently strengthening the executive's power.As clearly shown, the purpose of the Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth) was to exempt the executive from consequent judicial review.

"It is said that difficult cases make bad law" and the Tampa litigation is dubiously no exception to this statement.The Judiciary should not have to continuously justify the Executive's actions and decisions, as this will only also result in a continuos erosion of the separation of powers.More so, the court should not have to continuously rule alongside the Executive, but should work towards resolving the imbalance of Executive power, which potentially looks like a contentious issue that will arise in the near future.

Bibliography

Castan, Melissa & Joseph, Dr Sarah, Federal Constitutional Law A Contemporary View Sydney Lawbook Co. 001

Zines, L. The High Court and the Constitution (4th Ed.) Sydney Butterworths (17)

Evans, Dr. Simon "The Rule of Law, Constitutionalism and the MV Tampa" v.1 Public Law Review, 4 at 7 (00)

Pringle, Helen & Thompson, Dr Elaine, "The Tampa Affair and the Role of the Australian Parliament" v.1 Public law Review 18 (00)

Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives ( August 001), p0516

Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, Second Reading Speech ( August 001), p056

Cases and Legislation

Attorney-General (Canada) v Cain [106] AC 54

Davis v Commonwealth (188) 166 CLR 7

Musgrove v Toy [181] AC 7

Robtelmes v Brenan (106) 4 CLR 5

Ruddock v Valdaris (001) 110 FCR 41

Victorian Council for Civil Liberties Inc v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (001) 100 FCR 45

Customs Act 101 (Cth)

Migration Act 158 (Cth)

Border Protection Legislation Amendment Act 1 (Cth)

Border Protection Act (Validation and Enforcement Powers) Act 001 (Cth)

Please note that this sample paper on Tampa is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Tampa, we are here to assist you.Your cheap custom college paper on Tampa will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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